Some Other (Minor) Types of Word-Formation

ПОРЯДОК ДЕЙСТВИЙ В СЛУЧАЕ ПОЖАРА

 

В случае выявления пожара (признаков горения) каждый гражданин обязан:

- немедленно сообщить об этом по телефону в пожарную охрану. При этом необходимо назвать адрес объекта, указать количество этажей здания, место возникновения пожара, обстановку на пожаре, наличие людей, а также сообщить свою фамилию;

- применить (по возможности) меры к эвакуации людей, тушению (локализации) пожара и сохранению материальных ценностей;

- если пожар возникнет на предприятии, сообщить о нем руководителю или соответствующему компетентному должностному лицу и (или) дежурному по объекту;

- в случае необходимости вызвать другие аварийно-спасательные службы (медицинскую, газоспасательную).

 

Основными направлениями обеспечения пожарной безопасности является устранение условий возникновения пожара и минимизация ее последствий. Объекты должны иметь системы пожарной безопасности, направленные на предотвращение пожара воздействия на людей и материальные ценности опасных факторов пожара, в том числе их вторичных проявлений. К таким факторам, согласно ГОСТ 12.1.004-91, относятся:

- Пламя и искры;

- Повышенная температура окружающей среды;

- Токсичные продукты горения и термического разложения;

- Дым;

- Пониженная концентрация кислорода.

Вторичными проявлениями опасных факторов пожара считаются:

- Обломки, части разрушенных аппаратов, агрегатов, установок, конструкций;

- Радиоактивные и токсичные вещества и материалы, выброшенные из разрушенных аппаратов и установок;

- Электрический ток, возникший вследствие перехода напряжения на токопроводящие элементы строительных конструкций, аппаратов, агрегатов под действием высоких температур;

- Опасные факторы взрывов, по ГОСТ 12.1.010, связанных с пожарами;

- Огнетушащие вещества.

Составляющие и общая схема обеспечения пожарной безопасности

Системы пожарной безопасности - это комплекс организационных мероприятий и технических средств, направленных на предотвращение пожара и ущерба от него.

 

Affixation, compounding and conversion are the three major types of word-formation. They play a crucial role in the formation of new words in English. Apart from these there are other (minor) ways of forming new words which also refer to word formation:

 

back-formationor disaffixationor reversion(baby-sitter – tobaby-sit). Back-formation is a process that creates a new word by removing a real or supposed affix from another word in the language. ‘Resurrect’ (воскресать) was originally formed in this way from ‘resurrection’, ‘enthuse’ from ‘enthusiasm’, ‘donate’ from ‘donation’, ‘orient’ or ‘orientate’ from ‘orientation’, and ‘self-destruct’ from ‘self-destruction’. Words that end in -or or -er have proven susceptible (восприимчивый) to back-formation in English. Because hundreds of such words are the result of affixation (‘runner’, ‘walker’, ‘singer’,etc.), any word with this shape is likely to be perceived as a verb + ercombination. The words ‘editor’, ‘peddler’, ‘burglar’, ‘cobbler’ and ‘swindler’ were misanalyzed. The result was the creation of the verbs ‘to edit’, ‘to peddle’, ‘to burgle’, ‘to cobble’ and ‘to swindle’. Back-formation continues to produce new words in modern English, for instance, the form ‘to attrit’ (изнурять, выматывать, изматывать) was formed from ‘attrition’ (изнурение, истощение), the verb ‘lase’ (генерировать) from ‘laser’, ‘liposuct’ from ‘liposuction’;

sound interchange(speak – speech, blood – bleed) is an opposition in which words or word forms are differentiated due to a change in the phonemic structure of the root. The change may affect:

v the root vowel: ‘food’ – ‘feed’

v the root consonant: ‘speak’ – ‘speech’

v both vowel and consonant in the root: ‘life’ – ‘live’

It can also be combined with affixation: ‘strong’ – ‘strength’. It can also involve affixation and shift of stress: ‘democrat’ – ‘democracy’.

distinctive changeis a change in the stress pattern of words where stress in usually shifted onto to the second syllable: 'conduct – to con 'duct, 'increase – to in'crease, 'subject – to su'bject, 'impact – to im'pact, 'compress – to com'press, 'affix – to a'ffix, 'compact – to com'pact, 'compound – to com'pound, 'conflict – to con'flict, 'contest – to con'test, 'contract – to con'tract, 'extract – to ex'tract, 'contrast – to con'trast, 'convict – to con'vict, 'digest – to di'gest, 'essay – to e'ssay, 'export – to ex'port, 'import – to im'port, 'transport – to strans'port, 'increase – to in'crease, 'decrease – to de'crease, 'insult – to in'sult, 'object – to ob'ject, 'subject – to sub'ject, 'project – to pro'ject, 'perfume – to per'fume, 'permit – to per'mit, 'persent – to pre'sent, 'produce – to pro'duce, 'protest – to pro'test, 'rebel – to re'bel, 'record – to re'cord, 'survey – to sur'vey, 'torment – to tor'ment, 'transfer – to trans'fer, 'accent – to ac'cent, 'asphalt – to as'phalt, 'attribute – to att'ribute, 'frequent – to fre'quent, etc.

sound imitationor onomatopoeiaor echoismare echoes of natural sounds. i.e. the naming of n action or thing by a more or less exact reproduction of a sound associated with it. For example words naming sounds and movements of water: babble, blob, bubble, splash, gurgle, etc. There are many verbs which denote sounds produced by people: babble, chatter, giggle, grunt, grumble, murmur, mutter, titter, whine, whisper, etc. There are also verbs produced by sounds of animals, birds and insect: buzz, cackle, croak, crow, hiss, honk, howl, moo, mew, neigh, purr, roar, etc. Some birds are named after the sound they make: the crow, the cuckoo, the whippoorwill. There are verbs imitating the noise of metallic things: clink, tinkle and motions: clash, crash, whack whip, whisk, etc.

 

blending:these are words that are created from parts of two already existing items, usually the first part of one and the final part of the other: brunch from breakfast and lunch, smog from smoke and fog, spam from spiced and ham, chunnel (for the underwater link between Britain and the continent) from channel and tunnel, and infomercial from information and commercial. Some blends have become so integrated into the standard vocabulary of English that speakers are unaware of their status, for example, motel from motor and hotel, bit (in computer jargon) from binary and digit, modem from modulator and demodulator. Sometimes a word is formed by a process that is on the borderline between compounding and blending. It combines all of one word with part of another, e.g. workaholic, medicare, Eurotunnel, slanguage, guesstimate

clippingis a process that shortens a polysyllabic word by deleting one or more syllables: prof for professor, burger for hamburger. The word zoo, for instance, was formed from zoological gar­den; fax was formed from facsimile (meaning “exact copy or reproduction”). Some of the most common products of clipping are names — Liz, Bob, Sue, and so on. Many clipped forms have been accepted in general usage: bike, phone, specs, fancy, doc, ad, auto, lab, sub, deli, condo;

acronymy:NATO, NASA, UNESCO. Acronyms are formed by taking the initial letters of the words in a phrase and pronouncing them as a word. This type of word formation is especially common in names of organizations and in terminology. NASA stands for National Aeronautics and Space Administration, NATO – North Atlantic Treaty Organization, NOAA – National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. AIDS stands for ‘acquired immune deficiency syndrome’. Such commonly used words as radar (from radio detecting and ranging), and laser (light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation) originated as acronyms/