Intonation of commands

Intonation of direct address

Direct address is a word (or group of word), which is used to address somebody. In the ancient times direct address was just a nickname (it was a short word, which could attract a definite person). That’s why now people prefer to call by short names. Now direct address may be expressed:

ü By names/proper-names by people (if this word begins the sentence, it has the falling tone);

ü By common nouns, which can be applied to different people (Mr., Mrs., mom, dad);

ü By emotionally colored words (darling, dear).

In the 18^th a new type of direct address appeared – personal pronoun “you”+ adjective + noun. Now it is considered to be super-conversational (you lazy boy). If a direct address is located in the middle of sentence, it has falling-rising tone. If the direct address in the end of sentence, it has the rising tone.

Nowadays, direct address is becoming more and more popular, but it loses main functions, because in GB people stop calling each other classical names and addresses.

Commands and requests appeared in the ancient times and, perhaps, were the most ancient words in the people’s languages. In the speech of monkeys the mostly brightly colored words are commands.

In the 17^th cent. French archeologist found an ancient Skiff’s town on the territory of Central Russia. There were some stones with letters. He tried to decode them, but failed. In 2002 some parts of this letters were decoded. But not the whole volume. He found out many commands and requests with a very old word structure. It was “the noun of a person (the title)” + object + adverbs modifier + “a verb with a special ending” (Bob a book to the table put).

Requests are considered to be much younger. Request is polite command, and, at first, it was used only to the subordinates of the chieftains, who were both noble and rich.

The intonation of commands is falling, if you want to be striker, and the tone is rising, if it is a polite request or it is the intonation of counting. Now a new type to request starts to appear. It is pronounced with falling-rising without addition of polite words (give me the salt).

19. International linguistic school: British, American, Asian and Latin American

Famous schools are:

ü British Royal linguistic society;

ü American translational school;

ü Empiric Asian linguistic center (China);

ü Latin American translational center of Latin American countries (in Columbia).

1. British Royal linguistic society was found in 1862 by 2 famous linguists and explorers – Joseph Laurence and Eel Mantosh. The purpose of this school was to create official linguistic center for teaching the classical royal pronunciation and the classical British grammar. At 1^st there was a lot of people from India and other Asian countries. Later many Europeans came to it. They created 3 stages of phonetic course:

ü 1^st stage – correctiveness and improvement of English sounds including the phonetic and international courses. The linguists classified all English communicative types of sentences, including melody, temple, rhythm, strong and weak positions of vowels and all types of assimilation for consonants.

ü 2^nd stage – pupils were separated from the same-language-speaking friends into the communicated with the native speakers. All of them lived together and once a day they came to a special phonetic class.

ü 3^rd stage – speaking, according to special patterns under the control of tutors.

At present this school has divisions in many countries such as: countries of the common-wealth, all European countries, many Asian and African once. In Russia we had this school like British Console.

The British Royal Linguistic School deals now with the following directions:

ü Translating the world literature from English into other languages;

ü Carrying out Rpb-books of all linguistic aspects (Oxford);

ü Carrying out different courses – “English for different purpose”

ü Carrying out fundamental principles of linguistic (theoretical phonetic and grammar, historical and modern syntax, all practical courses).

The famous linguists are Eel Laurence, Jeremy Blacsworth and Margaret Linton (translator).

2. American traditional school was founded at the end of 19^th century by 2 linguists: Tomas Helmet and Joseph Uoytayal. This scientists at 1^st paged attention to the Indian dialects. Tomas investigated modern dialects and his friend – central and southern once. As English dominated in the USA and there were no demands for learning it in America, linguists decided to learn the history of the local languages. As a result of their work, they published a famous 3-volume book “Indian dialects in the scientific interpretation”. They learned and investigated more than 50 Indian dialects and came to the conclusion that in prehistoric times there lived no Indians, but some ancient tribes, which had come from the continent of Africa. Indian dialects have much in common with African Swahili. Northern dialects later were intermingled with some ancient tribes. The routes and morphemes of them are very close to the languages of Central Africa. Southern Indian dialects had totally different structure and their accentors had come somewhere from Europe, the North (they have much in common with our chuchas and eavenkeys).

At the beginning of the 20^th century American linguistic school became super popular due to 3 factors:

ü America didn’t take part in the 1^st World war and many linguists left Europe for the USA;

ü America has always been very rich and could pay big money to newcomers;

ü America became a leading country and was developing very fast while other countries got into the stagnation.

In the 20^th-30^th years of the 20^th century a new name appeared in American linguistic. Chomsky created a new theory of linguistic “Breeding and transforming linguistic”. In the prehistoric times, when there were only few people, their common language considered commands, appeals, warnings and informative sense (water, food). On this basis there were appeared 4 types of language:

ü Asian languages were based on appeals;

ü European languages were based on commands (such languages are dominating and rules the history);

ü Languages of informative sighs (Africa); such languages will be always subordinates, because they are primitive;

ü Languages of warnings (hieroglyphical languages) – Korean, Chinese, Japanese and Ancient Egyptian – such languages have one task: to keep information inside, not outside.

The main idea of Chomsky’s theory is that all modern languages are developing according to the ancient for system classification.

Famous linguists are John Malcolm, David Cotton and Amid Stefferson.

3. Asian linguistic schools. Modern Asian linguistic schools appeared in the period from the beginning of 19^th century up to the middle of 20^th century. There are schools in Mumbai (India), Shanghais (China), Tokyo (Japanese) and Burma (Myanmar). They appeared because main relationships developed rapidly with Europe and America. Before, Asian people had not studied European languages. The 1^st school appeared in China (1892). All Asian schools had one purpose – to create as many as possible teaching books for the local population. New schools for children appeared, and studying English became the main principle. In India English became the state language and school of linguistic was very powerful. They published many text-books of phonetic and grammar and some of them are used now. In Japan the school was under the control of king, and they insisted on the pure British pronunciation. But Japanese school is famous for the translation. As for British school, it is created according to the European principles (system of campuses, faculties, educational program look like Oxford university).

4. Intonational linguistic school in Latin America. Latin America countries have never been deeply interested in linguistic studies. They spoke Indian dialects before the Spanish conquests and they had some manuscripts. Only with the Spanish invasion some linguistic centers were opened. One center was opened not far from Montuero (in Argentina). Another center was opened in Peru named St. Patricio. The main directions of their activity were the following:

ü To teach the local population Spanish;

ü To learn and classify ancient Indian dialects and make their written descriptions;

ü To learn and investigate prehistoric Indian manuscripts made in stone.

ü To learn different ways of psychological influence on human activity of Indian speaking people (psycholinguistic).

In the 15^th century the Spanish invaders burn down many ancient Indian manuscripts. And now there are only copies from the memories.

In the 16^th century all Indian tribes had their own “linguistic” school. There were sacred centers, where future monks studied diff languages, ancient history and mythology and tried to rewrite or restore ancient manuscripts. In the 17^th century Spanish invaders occupied Latin America, and a century later school began to develop.

ü Argentina’s school. The founders were 2 Spanish merchants and 3 Indian chieftains (Lolo, Hanto and Mivau). When they began to arrange both ceremonial and educational centre, they decided to divide the functions between each other. Spanish began to control educational programs, and Indian chieftains were responsible for the sacred ceremonials and learning ancient manuscripts. By middle of the 19^th century educational part of school survived, but the Indian part disappeared. Now in Argentina there are only 2 linguistic centers in Rio-de-Janeiro and Cepereimos.

ü Peruvian school. In ancient Peru there were 2 domination Indian tribes (Maya and Aztecs) and 3 subordinate tribes (Гонзуллы, Левароны, Ромты). The tribe from Romtas was sacrificed completely to the god of sun, after the Romtas defeat in the war with Maya. Levarons were considered to be the most educated tribe, but their main principals was not to take part in any war and they were teachers for all the Indians. But once of their predictions consoling the future of some important rich Indian chieftains. In the 18^th century remains of Indian population tried to restore the culture and their scientific center, which dials with modern tendencies in teaching foreign languages and creating new technologies. They investigate and classify all possible types of intonation in the world and it is the main Latin American center of translation from differebt languages.