Classification of Dictionaries
1) All dictionaries are divided into linguistic and encyclopaedic dictionaries. Encyclopaedic dictionaries describe different objects, phenomena, people and give some information about them. Linguistic dictionaries describe vocabulary units, their semantic structure , their origin, their usage.
2) Linguistic dictionaries are divided into general and specialized dictionaries. General dictionaries include explanatory and translation dictionaries. Specialized dictionaries include dictionaries of synonyms, antonyms, collocations, word-frequency, neologisms, slang, pronouncing, etymological, phraseological and others.
3) All types of dictionaries can be monolingual if the explanation is given in the same language, bilingual if the explanation is given in another language and also they can be polylingual. There are a lot of explanatory dictionaries: NED (New English Dictionary), SOD (Shorter Oxford Dictionary), COD (Concise Oxford Dictionary). In explanatory dictionaries the entry consists of the spelling, transcription, grammatical forms, meanings, examples, phraseology.
4) They are synchronic in their presentation of words as distinct from diachronic, those concerned with the development of words occurring within the written history of the language. Diachronic dictionary are, for instance, the New English Dictionary on Historical Principles commonly abbreviated in NED and its abridgement The Shorter Oxford Dictionary on Historical Principles (SOD) coyer the history of the English vocabulary from the days of King Alfred down to the present time; they are diachronic.
5) Translation dictionaries give words and their equivalents in the other language. There are English-Russian dictionaries by I.R. Galperin (БАРС - Большой Англо-русский Словарь), by Y. Apresyan (three volumes) and others. Specialized dictionaries of synonyms are also widely used. Phraseological dictionaries describe idioms and colloquial phrases, proverbs. The most famous bilingual dictionary of phraseology was compiled by A.V. Koonin. Etymological dictionaries trace present-day words to the oldest forms of these words and forms of these words in other languages. One of the best etymological dictionaries was compiled by W. Skeat. Pronouncing dictionaries record only pronunciation. Dictionaries of neologisms.
6) The entries of a dictionary are usually arranged in alphabetical order. Derivatives and compounds are given under the same head-word. It’s not the same in ideographic dictionaries, where the main body is arranged according to a logical classification of notions expressed. Such dictionaries are also referred to by the name THESAURUS.
Recent years have seen the appearance of various electronic dictionaries, including online dictionaries. These can be of much help in linguistic studies as they facilitate the search thus making the linguist’s work more efficient and its results precise. Another important type of resource that can be used both as instrument and source of material for linguistic research is a language corpus.
6. Фразеология
1. Лексическая и грамматическая сочетаемость
2. Понятие фразеологической единицы.
3 Происхождение и классификация фразеологических единиц
The word-combination (WC) is the largest two-facet lexical unit observed on the syntagmatic level of analysis. By the degree of their structural and semantic cohesion WCs are classified into free word combinations and phraseological units.
Lexical combinability (collocation) is the aptness of a word to appear in certain lexical contexts. Each word has a certain norm of collocation. Any departure from this norm is felt as a stylistic device. The collocations of correlated words in different languages are not identical.
Grammatical combinability (colligation) is the aptness of a word to appear in certain grammatical contexts, e.g. the adjective heavy can be followed by a noun (heavy storm), by an infinitive (heavy to lift). Each grammatical unit has a certain norm of colligation, the departure from the norm of colligation is usually impossible.
Phraseological units are word-groups that cannot be made in the process of speech, they exist in the language as ready-made units. They are registered in special dictionaries. Like words, phraseological units express a single notion and are used in a sentence as one part of it. In other words, they are characterized by semantic and structural integrity. American and British lexicographers call such units idioms.
Phraseological units can be classified in different ways. According to the degree of motivation of their meaning acad. V.V. Vinogradov classified phraseological units into three types:
a) fusions (фразеологические сращения) where the degree of motivation is very low, we cannot guess the meaning of the whole from the meanings of its components, e.g. on Shank‘s mare (on foot); in Russian: бить баклуши;
b) unities (фразеологические единства) where the meaning of the whole can be guessed from the meanings of its components, but it is transferred (metaphorically or metonimically), e.g. to play the first fiddle (to be a leader in something), old salt (experienced sailor);
c) collocations (фразеологические сочетания) where words are combined in their original meaning but their combinations are different in different languages, e.g. cash and carry – self-service shop, in a big way (in great degree).
Phraseological units can be classified as parts of speech. This classification was suggested by I.V. Arnold. Here we have the following groups:
a) noun phraseological units denoting an object, a person, a living being, e.g. bullet train, a latchkey child;
b) verb phraseological units denoting an action, a state, a feeling, e.g. to to get on somebody‘s coattails, to be on the beam;
c) adjective phraseological units denoting a quality, e.g. dead as a doornail, dull as lead;
d) adverb phraseological units, e.g. with a bump, in the soup;
e) preposition phraseological units, e.g. in the course of, on the stroke of;
f) interjection phraseological units, e.g. Catch me! Well, I declare!
In I.V. Arnold classification there are also sentence equivalents: proverbs, sayings and quotations. A proverb is a short familiar epigrammatic saying expressing popular wisdom, a truth or a moral lesson in a concise and imaginative way. Proverbs are usually metaphorical, while sayings are, as a rule, non-metaphorical, e.g. Where there is a will there is a way – Кто хочет, тот добьется. Though the issue of whether proverbs should be included in phraseological stock of a language is arguable. Some scientists reason that phraseological units should be equivalent to words in their syntactical function, whereas proverbs function only as a whole sentence and cannot make up larger syntactical units. On the other hand, proverbs have much in common with set expressions, because their lexical components are also constant, their meaning is traditional and mostly figurative, and they are introduced into speech ready-made. That is why some scholars following V.V. Vinogradov think proverbs must be studied together with phraseological units. Moreover, there exist lively interrelation between set expressions on the one hand and proverbs and quotations, on the other hand . In many cases proverbs give rise to a word-equivalent idiom. Both set expressions and proverbs are sometimes split and changed for humorous purposes, as in the following quotation: It will be an age not perhaps of gold, but at least of glitter. As to familiar quotations, they are different from proverbs in their origin. They come from literature but by and by they become part and parcel of the language, so that many people using them do not even know that they are quoting. The main argument for considering these as a part of phraseological stock – or at least of its periphery – is that many phrases that are now considered as set expressions can be easily traced to literary works.
7. Особенности грамматического строя английского языка.
1 Основные единицы морфологического уровня. Грамматическая категория, грамматическая парадигма.
2. Части речи.
3. Категории английского существительного
4. Категории английского глагола.