Word Formation
Пути пополнения словарного состава языка.
Stylistically Marked and Stylistically Neutral Words
The basic stylistic division of the vocabulary is stylistically neutral and stylistically marked words. The former can be used in any situation and make up the greater part of every utterance. The latter are found only in specific contexts. horse (neutral) – steed (poetic) – gee-gee (a nursery word).
Stylistically marked words are subdivided into formal and informal. Formal vocabulary includes special terms (morpheme, phoneme), learned words (initial, to exclude), official words (to dispatch, to summon) and poetic words (woe, to behold, lone). Informal vocabulary is subduvided into standard colloquial and substandard: slang, argot, dialectal, familiar and vulgar words. Colloquial vocabulary includes common polysemantic words (thing, get, really, nice), nouns converted from verbs (give a scare, make-up), verbs with postpositives (think out, come on), substantivized adjectives (woolies, daily), emotional units (a bit tired, by God, oh), modal words and expressions (definitely, in a way, rather, by no means). Slang words are fresh and shocking words for usual things: drunk – boozy, cock-eyed, soaked, tight.
1 Словообразование.
2. Заимствования.
DEVELOPMENT OF ENGLISH VOCABULARY
No vocabulary of any living language is ever stable but is constantly changing, growing and decaying. The changes occurring in the vocabulary are due both to linguistic and non-linguistic causes, but in most cases to the combination of both. The number of new words that appear in the language is so much greater than those that drop out or become obsolete, that the development of vocabularies may be described as a process of never-ending growth. The influx of new words has never been more rapid than in the last few decades of this century. The growth of the vocabulary reflects not only the general progress made by mankind but also the peculiarities of the way of life of the speech community in which the new words appear, the way its science and culture tend to develop.
There are two aspects of the growth of the language — the appearance of new lexical items which increase the vocabulary numerically and the appearance of new meanings of old words. New vocabulary units are mostly the result of the new combinations of old elements. Entirely new lexical items make an insignificant section of vocabulary.
Productive word-formation is the most effective means of enriching the vocabulary. Speaking about word structure we differentiate 2 levels: the level of morphemic analysis and the level of derivational or word-formation analysis.
The basic unit of the morphemic level is the morpheme defined as the smallest indivisible two-facet language unit. Morphemes are classified into roots and affixes. Affixes are divided into prefixes, postfixes (or suffixes) and infixes. Roots are clasified by their frequency into recurrent and unique. Affixes are classified by their activity in the language into productive and non-productive.
According to the nature and the number of morphemes constituting a word there are different structural types of words in English: simple, derived, compound, compound-derived.
Simple words consist of one root morpheme and an inflexion. Derived words consist of one root morpheme, one or several affixes and an inlexion, compound words consist of two or more root morphemes and an inflexion. Compound-derived words consist of two or more root morphemes, one or more affixes and an inflexion. The stem is the part of the word which remains unchanged throughout the paradigm of the word, e.g. the stem «hop» can be found in the words: «hop», «hops», «hopped», «hopping».
Derivational level of analysis aims at finding out the derivative types of words, the interrelation between them and at finding out how different types of words are constructed. Derivationally all words form two structural classes: simple (non-derived) words and derivatives. Sometimes it is rather difficult to distinguish between simple and derived words, especially in the cases of phonetic borrowings from other languages and of native words with blocked (unique) root morphemes.
There are four main ways of word-building in Modern English: affixation, composition, conversion, shortening. There are also secondary ways of word-building: sound-interchange, stress interchange, sound imitation, blends, back formation (disaffixation).
Sound-interchange is the way of word-building when some sounds are changed to form a new word.
Stress interchange can be mostly met in verbs and nouns of Romanic origin: nouns have the stress on the first syllable and verbs on the last syllable.
Sound imitation is the way of word-building when a word is built by imitating different sounds.
Blends are words formed from a word-group or two synonyms, e.g. hustle (hurry and bustle).
Backformation (disaffixation) is the way of word-building when a word is formed by dropping the final morpheme to form a new word.
Affixation has been one of the most productive ways of word-building throughout the history of English. It consists in adding an affix to the stem of a definite part of speech. Affixation is divided into suffixation and prefixation.
Suffixation. The main function of suffixes in Modern English is to form one part of speech from another, the secondary function is to change the lexical meaning of the same part of speech, e.g. educate v – educatee n.
Prefixation is the formation of words by means of adding a prefix to the stem. In English it is characteristic for forming verbs. The main function of prefixes in English is to change the lexical meaning of the same part of speech.
Composition is the way of word-building when a word is formed by joining two or more stems to form one word. The structural unity of a compound word depends upon:
a) A unity of stress.
b) Solid or hyphenated spelling.
c) Semantic unity.
d) Unity of morphological and syntactical functioning.
Conversion is a characteristic feature of the English word-building system. It is also called affixless derivation or zero suffuxation. Conversion is the main way of forming verbs in Modern English.
Abbreviation. Words and word-groups can be shortened. The causes of shortening can be linguistic and extra-linguistic (changes in the life of people). In Modern English many new abbreviations, acronyms, initials, blends are formed because the tempo of life is increasing and it becomes necessary to give more and more information in the shortest possible time. There are also linguistic causes of abbreviating words and word-groups, such as the demand of rhythm, which is satisfied in English by monosyllabic words (fanaticus(Lat.) > fan)
There are two main types of shortenings: graphical and lexical.
Lexical abbreviation consists in clipping a part of a word. As a result we get a new lexical unit where either the lexical meaning or the style is different form the full form of the word.
Graphical abbreviations are the result of shortening of words and word-groups only in written speech while orally the corresponding full forms are used. They are used for the economy of space and effort in writing. The oldest group of graphical abbreviations in English is of Latin origin. e.g. for example (Latin exampli gratia), No - number (numero), p.a. - a year (per annum), d - penny (dinarius), lb - pound (libra), i. e. - that is (id est) etc.
There are also graphical abbreviations of native origin: Mon – Monday etc/
Initialisms are the bordering case between graphical and lexical abbreviations. When they appear in the language, they are closer to graphical abbreviations, e.g. J.V. - joint venture. When they are used for some duration of time they acquire the shortened form, e.g. BBC. There are three types of initialisms in English:
a) initialisms with alphabetical reading, such as UK, BUP, CND etc
b) initialisms which are read as if they are words, e.g. UNESCO, NATO etc.
c) initialisms which coincide with English words in their sound form, e.g. CLASS (Computer-based Laboratory for Automated School System).
groups b) and c) are sometimes united under the name of acronyms.