The work of the organs of speech and their functions.
It studies the organs of speech which take part in producing different sounds.
This modification demonstrates the articulatory difference between the allophones. Allophones of the same phoneme never occur in the same phonetic context and can not differentiate the meaning of the word.
According to Vasilyev theory the phoneme is realized is speech in the material forms of speech sounds of different types. Various speech realizations of phoneme are called allophones. In other words, phonemes are realized in speech in the form of allophones. The difference between the allophone of the same phoneme is due to the position in various phonetic contests. The allophones belonging to the same phoneme are not identical in their articulation though remains some phonetic similarities.
Phonemes occur in the same phonetic environment. They are functional units that means that being opposed to other phonemes in the same phonetic environment they are capable of differentiating the meaning of morphemes or words.
For example, said-says, bath-path, light-like
Sometimes the meaning of the whole phrase:
For example, he was badly heard/he was badly hurt.
The example below illustrates the articulatory modification in the phoneme «d» in various phonetic contexts.
«d» is slightly palatalized before front vowels: deal, did.
«d» becomes labialized when followed by the sound [w]: dweller
To distinguish the sound types from the allophones in written two types of brackets are used:
- slant for the phoneme proper;
- square brackets for their allophones.
[стр.28 + стр.30-32 до (Table 1) + стр.36 IV]
As we deal with the sounds of speech, it is necessary speak first about the organs which produce these sounds, organs which are active directly or indirectly in the process of speech sound production.
In order to speak we need breath. The process ob breathing consists of two phases:
1) breathing in (inspiration);
2) breathing out (expiration).
In ordinary breathing we take about the same time to breathe in as to breathe out. But in speech inspiration is quick and up; expiration considerably is slowed down as most sounds of speech of all languages are made with outgoing breath from the lungs on the face of expiration.
Breathing begins from the lungs. The air-stream released from the lungs through the windpipe [дыхательное горло] comes into the larynx [гортань] which contains the vocal cods. On coming out of the larynx the air passes through the pharynx [глотка] and comes directly into the mouth cavity with the organs which it contains or the nasal cavity. Under the pressure of the air these organs perform a number of movements which is called articulation. As a result different sounds are produced. All these organs of speech are divided into active (mobile) and passive (immobile) in the process of forming speech sounds. Active organs or mobile in articulating sounds occupy one or another in respect to passive which are immobile. Immobile don’t change their position in the process of forming speech sounds.
All speech organs are grouped into four main mechanisms. [стр.25] They are:
(1) the power mechanism;
(2) the vibrator mechanism;
(3) the resonator mechanism;
(4) the obstructor mechanism.
(1) The power mechanism regulates the air-stream exhaled from the lungs.
It consists of:
pthe diaphragm [‘daɪəfræm] - диафрагма,
pthe lungs - легкие,
pthe bronchi [‘brɔŋkaɪ] - бронхи,
pthe windpipe [‘win(d)paip] - дыхательное горло (or trachea [trə'ki:ə] - трахея),
pthe glottis - голосовая щель,
pthe larynx - гортань,
pthe mouth cavity - ротовая полость,
pand the nasal cavity - носовая полость.
The lungs produce variations in the intensity of speech sounds. Syllabic pulses and dynamic stress are directly related to the behaviour of the muscles which activate this mechanism.
(2) The vibrator mechanism (the voice producing mechanism). The task of this mechanism is to produce voice. It consists of the vocal cords; they are in the larynx, or voice box. They vibrate when the air passes between them. The opening between the vocal cords is called «glottis».
The vocal cords are two horizontal folds of elastic tissue. The vocal cords can take three positions:
„they can be wide apart [a];
„they can be brought close together [b];
„they are held loosely together [c].
[a] When the vocal cords are wide apart, the glottis is open thy don’t vibrate and the air passes between them easily, so the sound which is produced in this position, is called breath and this occurs when we pronounce voiceless consonants.
[b] When the vocal cords are brought close together, the air can’t pass between them, because the glottis is closed. Under the pressure of the air the glottis opens suddenly and produces an explosion resembling a short coughing noise. This sound is called the glottal stop. It is an exceptional sound in which there is neither breath, nor voice during its articulation.
[c] When the vocal cords are held loosely together, the air passing by makes the vocal cords vibrate; thus produce a musical sound called voice. This occurs when we pronounce vowels or voiced consonants.
(3) The resonator mechanism.This mechanism works as a resonator.
It consists of:
pthe pharynx - глотка,
pthe larynx - гортань,
pthe mouth cavity - ротовая полость,
pand the nasal cavity - носовая полость.
The shape of these cavities modifies the note produced in the larynx thus giving rise to the particular speech sounds.
(4) The obstructor mechanism. The task of this mechanism is to make obstructions to the air-stream thus producing different speech sounds.
It consists of:
pthe tongue (1-blade with the tip (передняя часть с кончиком), 2-front (средняя часть), 3-back (задняя часть) or dorsum (спинка языка)),
pthe lips (lower, upper; they may be kept together, rounded, open, spread, kept apart; they may be in contact with upper teeth),
pthe teeth,
pthe soft palate with the uvula - мягкое небо с язычком (the palate is divided: soft is very mobile, hard is less mobile),
pthe hard palate - твердое небо,
pthe alveolar ridge - альвеолярный отросток.