Semantic classification of word

Synonymy ['sɪnənɪm]

Synonymies are words, which belong to one part of speech, similar (сходные) but not identical in meaning and combinability (сочетаемость) and interchangeable ([ˌɪntə'ʧeɪnʤəbl] равноценный) in at least (по меньшей мере) some contexts. Some scholars define synonyms as the words with the same denotative [dɪ'nəutətɪv] обозначающий) component but different in connotations (подтекст).

	denotation	connotation
to stare [steə]	look	+lastingly ['lɑːstɪŋ] длительно	+ in surprise
to glare [gleə]	look	+lastingly ['lɑːstɪŋ] длительно	+ anger
to glance [glɑːn(t)s]	look	+briefly ['briːflɪ] кратко

Each Synonymic [ˌsɪnə'nɪmɪk] group has a dominant ['dɔmɪnənt] главный element. It is called “the synonymic dominant”.

It is characterized by:

1) high frequency of usage (высокая частота употребления)

2) broad [brɔːd] combinability (широкая сочетаемость) ( that is ability to be used in combinations with different classes of words)

3) broad general meaning (широкое общее значение)

4) lack [læk] of connotations (отсутствие подтекста)

Sources of synonyms:

1) Borrowing

For example kingly ['kɪŋlɪ] – royal ['rɔɪəl] – королевский

2) Adoption([ə'dɔpʃ(ə)n] заимствование) of the words from notional (['nəuʃ(ə)n(ə)l]смысловой) regional (областной) and local (['ləuk(ə)l]местной) variants (м разновидностей) of the language.

For example autumn – fall – осень, charm (French) – glamour ['glæmə] (Scottish)

3) Differentiation of meaning and usage

For example gentleman – men – chap – guy

4) Euphemisms ['juːfəmɪz(ə)m]

For example to die – to join to majority

English is very rich in synonyms and they are one of language`s most important expressive means средств выразительности). Their function in the speech is to show different aspect (['æspekt] стороны) and shades ([ʃeɪd] нюансы) of the same phenomenon [fɪ'nɔmɪnən] явление.

If two or more words are identical in meaning the natural tendency (['tendən(t)sɪ] склонность) in the language is for one of them to change the meaning or disappear from the language.

Antonyms ['æntənɪm]

Antonyms are words which belong to one part of speech and have contrasting [kən'trɑːst] meanings.

Structurally antonyms can be divided into:

1) Antonyms of the same root

For example careful – careless

polite – impolite

2) Antonyms of different roots

For example day – night

rich –pour

Most antonyms are adjectives. Than go verbs, nouns and adverbs. A polysemantic word may have an antonym for each of its meaning. Antonyms are the language`s important expressive meanings.

 

Билет20 Phraseology [ˌfreɪzɪ'ɔləʤɪ], proverbs ['prɔvɜːb].

Phraseology [ˌfreɪzɪ'ɔləʤɪ] фразиология

Phraseology is a brunch of linguistics, which deals with functionally, semantically and almost always structurally inseparable ([ɪn'sep(ə)rəbl] неразделимой) word groups.

As a branch of linguistics Phraseology appeared in Russia. There is no such branch in foreign linguistics.

phraseological unit (RUS) = idioms ['ɪdɪəm] идиомы (other)

Phraseological units can be classified into:

1) Phraseological fusions (['fjuːʒ(ə)n]сращение). They are completely non motivated word groups.

For example white elephant – an expensive but useless thing

2) Phraseological unities. They are partially non-motivated, because their meaning can be understood through the metaphoric meaning of the whole phraseological unit.

For example to bend the knee – to obey

3) Phraseological collocations ([ˌkɔlə'keɪʃ(ə)n] словосочетания). They are motivated and have component used in its direct meaning while the other is used metaphorically [ˌmetə'fɔrɪk(ə)l].

For example to meet to the demands [dɪ'mɑːnd] – соответствовать требованиям

to have success – иметь успех

Phraseological units are characterized by stability their function in speech is nominative (['nɔmɪnətɪv] именительный падеж).

Proverbs ['prɔvɜːb] пословицы, поговорки

Proverbsare statements (['steɪtmənt] утверждения) that sum up (обобщает) the collective experience of the community (общности).

Proverb is a short epigamic (['epɪgræm] эпиграмма) saying, expressing popular wisdom ['wɪzdəm] мудрость, a moral lesson in an imaginative way ([ɪ'mæʤɪnətɪv] творческой форме). Their function in speech is communicative.

Phraseological units can originate ([ə'rɪʤ(ə)neɪt] брать начало) from proverbs.

For example

a drawing ['drɔːɪŋ] man catches at a straw [strɔː] – утопающий и за соломинку хватается → catch at a straw

Some of the proverbs are easily transformed into phraseological units

For example don`t put all your eggs in one basket → to put all one`s eggs in one basket – на один гвоздь всего не вешают.