Lecture 2. Culture of the Ancient East

Упадок египетской культуры

После смерти Рамсеса II наблюдается упадок египетской культуры, связанный с полосой тяжёлых и длительных войн и завоеваний Египта ливийцами, затем эфиопами, позже ассирийцами и персами. Возврат к искусству Древнего царства - эпоха Возрождения, который стал скорее лебединой песнью египетского искусства. Египетское искусство явилось образцом для крито-микенской культуры в Древней Греции. С берегов Нила в Рим перевозились гигантские обелиски, один из них стоит и ныне перед собором Святого Петра.

1. Culture of Ancient Egypt.
2. Culture of Ancient Mesopotamia.
3. Culture of Ancient India.
4. Culture of Ancient China.

Basic concepts: the oldest state, the origin of civilization, oppressive system, writing, pictography, hieroglyphic writing, sacred culture, places of worship, cuneiform writing, law, science, art, zaroastryzm, Islam, Veda and Varna, Hinduism, caste system, Jainism, Taoism, Confucianism, religious and philosophical systems, rituals, public administration, education, Buddhism.

2.1. Ancient Egypt is the first country on Earth, the first major powerful state, the first empire that claimed to world domination. It was a powerful despotic state, where people were completely dependent on ruling class. The basic principles on which the empire built Egypt were her integrity and inscrutability. The most important feature of the culture of ancient Egypt is a protest against death, which the Egyptians believed "abnormality". Passionate desire immortality determined the entire outlook of the Egyptians, permeated the whole religious thought of Egypt, formed the ancient Egyptian culture. Specialists of Egypt civilization exploring believe that in any other world civilization, this protest against the death did not find such a bright, specific and complete manifestation, as in Egypt.
The quest for immortality became the basis for the emergence of the funeral cult, which played a major role in the history of ancient Egypt and not only in the religious and cultural but also political, economic, military sense. It is based on disagreement with the inevitability of death with Egyptians born doctrine, under which death does not mean the end: a wonderful life on earth could be extended forever, the dead would wait for resurrection. To do this, one of the immortal souls of the deceased had to reconnect with your body. So live it was necessary to take care of that dead body was saved - this was a means for embalming. Concern for preserving dead bodies led to the art of making mummies. To extend the life after death, it is important to also take care to build a special tomb for the body. The Egyptians believed that the eternal, but fragile soul, just more convenient to return to their former and now also the eternal within the body of the powerful and protected from light and outside views of the Shrine - a pyramid. Pyramids built for Pharaohs (so called kings in Egypt) and the nobility, although the doctrine of Egyptian priests of any person, not just a king or nobleman, possessed eternal life force that is immortal, but if that will be fully complied with the ritual of burial. However, the poor are not embalmed body - it was very expensive, but just wraped in matting and stayed in ditches in the vicinity of cemeteries.
Pyramids were built by slaves and peasants in times of floods and droughts, which were free from field work. Work on the construction of the pyramid was a religious duty. In the III-II millennium B.C. pyramids and temples - built for the gods - were made of stone. Building pyramids was devastating for the economy of the state treasury exhausted, requiring tremendous tension forces and the many victims of the nation. History, as we know, abhors a conditional slope, but we can assume that if the Egyptians with such tenacity and dedication were building roads, not a pyramid, Egypt would have developed more rapidly.
The oldest of the Egyptian pyramids - the Pyramid of Pharaoh Djoser, built about 5 thousand years ago, it melted and rises as the staircase to heaven. However, the most famous and most significant in size - the Pyramid of Cheops. It is known that built it over 20 years hundreds of thousands of people. Its dimensions are such that can easily fit inside any European cathedral: the height of 147 m (currently 137 m) area - about 55000 m2. Cheops Pyramid made of giant limestone rocks, and each stone block weighs 2 tons. Scientists estimate that the construction of the pyramids took 2.3 million of such stones. Amazing building is the art of old masters: the stones of the pyramid is still so tightly put together, which between them can not even move the needle.
Ancient Egyptian pyramids are considered one of the seven wonders of the world. Later, in II millennium B.C., the pyramids were built of brick instead of stone, and most pyramids are smaller.
Prior construction of the pyramids were suspended. For the tombs of pharaohs were avoid deep and carefully hidden from prying eyes hiding.However, these recesses robbed as often as the pyramids. The Shrine of pharaohs was robbered in ancient Egyptian history of all periods, although the ancient Egyptians feared and worshiped their kings. Deification of the pharaohs took a central place in the religious cult of Egypt: Egyptians believed that Pharaoh is a living likeness of the sun and after his death, he floats in the sky. Gods in ancient Egypt there were many, each of them could be a few. The main was a sun god - Ra, the king and father of the gods. One of the most important gods was Osiris - the god of death, dying and embodying reviving nature. The Egyptians believed that after his death and resurrection of Osiris became king of the underground kingdom. The most important goddess was Isis, wife and sister of Osiris, the patroness of fertility and motherhood. God was both the moon and the god of writing, the goddess of truth and order was considered Maat. As the embodiment of the deity revered certain animals, plants, objects.
Egyptian polytheism did not contribute to the actual state centralization, the strengthening of supreme power and the subordination of the conquered tribes of Egypt. Pharaoh Amenhotep IV (ruled 1419 - 1400 B.C.) acted as a religious reformer, trying to adopt the worship of one god. It was the first attempt in history to set monotheism. It introduced a new state cult by declaring the true deity solar disk under the name of the god Aten, which the priests interpreted as "body of Ra" . The capital city of the state he did Ahetanon (modern settlement of El-Amarna) and he took the name Akhenaten, meaning "true god Aton." He tried to break the power of the old priesthood and the old aristocracy: cults of all other gods were abolished, their churches closed, and property confiscated. However, reforms of Akhenaten caused strong resistance to the powerful and extensive layer of priests and were short-lived. Successor pharaoh reformer soon had to go for reconciliation with the priests. The cults of the old gods were restored to the position of local priests again intensified.
Special attention needs writing, literature, art of ancient Egypt. Ancient Egyptian texts extant are a prayer of gods and business records. Historical fiction that have survived to our time, belong to the II millennium B.C. Probably there were more ancient, but have not survived. Fiction is represented by different genres - a lesson of kings and wise men for their sons, many tales of miracles and magicians, story. One of the ancient Egyptian famous abstract works of literature - "Conversation of disappointed with his soul" . Man, sure in the sense of life, begins to seek death. Soul, however, tries to dissuade him from suicide, says in the futility of hopes for the afterlife, says fully enjoy earthly existence.
Fine art and monumental art bears the imprint of Egyptian culture in general. Before the temples and palaces Egyptians built obelisks high thin, covered with hieroglyphs - painted symbolic writing, which was the most important part of the culture of ancient Egypt. Further ancient Egyptian hieroglyphic writing has become a component (which, by contrast, did not happen with the Chinese hieroglyphic script). Before the funeral temple built sphinx: stone images creature with the body of a lion and a human head as Pharaoh. Sphinx embodied wisdom, mystery and power of the Egyptian ruler. The largest sphinx, made in the first half of the III millennium B.C., still keeps the pyramid of Khafre. Sphinx carved from solid rock: his head is 30 times more than human, and body length is 57 m. Other great and world famous monuments of ancient Egyptian art - a sculptural portraits: a statue of Pharaoh Amenemhat III, Stella lords Hunena, portrait head of the pharaoh Senusret III. A masterpiece of ancient Egyptian art period of II millennium B.C. art historians believe made on the lid boxes relief, depicting the pharaoh Tutankhamen with his young wife in the garden. Confirmation of high culture of Egypt is a world renowned sculpture portrait of the wife of Amenhotep IV - Nefertiti - one of the most beautiful female images in the history of mankind.
In ancient Egypt were produced such classic architectural forms, like a pyramid, an obelisk, column, and these types of art like sculpture, relief, monument, painting. And although for more than three millenniums the Egyptian government and has undergone some changes, installed in her canon remained intact. Fine art of ancient Egypt have always been inherent in purely its flat shape, the canonical conditional transfer in the trunk and legs, decorative geometric pattern with symmetric distribution, strict linearity of the composition. All figures are static, unperturbed, their conventional postures as conditional and coloration: the body of a man traditionally painted as reddish-brown, the woman's body - yellow and pink, her hair was all black clothes - white. The same convention, and continuity characteristic of the other plastic arts. Statues and statuettes were religious purpose and appearance - coloring and position determined stringent standards required for the creator. From generation to generation, with the Millennium Goals, there were the same style, the same religion and the same art. Stagnant ancient Egyptian society in general has identified a consistent type of ancient Egyptian art and culture. Characteristic features were strengthening their forces, the desire to save and accumulate, desire immortality. Art was frozen in nature, it depressed its monumentality.
Science has achieved some success of ancient Egypt. Actively developed astronomy - Egyptian astronomers suggested that the constellations are in heaven and in the afternoon, but made invisible in the light of the sun. Significant, judging from the expertise of physicians, medical advances are: varied eye, dental and more. It was established a unique role of the brain in the human body. Also, the development of mathematics: in the late XXI - early XIX century B.C. was calculated surface of the ball. Was invented in ancient human history watch - water neck strap and little solar clocks. At the beginning of III millennium B.C. in ancient Egypt, papyrus was invented, which later received the distribution in other countries of the Mediterranean.
In VI century B.C. Egypt was conquered by the Persians, whose rule lasted until 405 B.C. The period of Egyptian independence was short-lived state: already in 332 B.C. Macedonia subjected to his power and founded the city of Alexandria - in honour of Alexander Macedonian (356-323 B.C.). Egyptian priests welcomed the new conqueror: he was proclaimed the Son of God. The power of Alexander the Great, therefore, has become traditional for Egyptian sacred form. In Egypt, established the cult of the new god - Sarapis, which merged the features of the major deities of the Greeks and Egyptians. Sarapis revered and Egyptian, and Greek populations. A city Alexandria quickly became the cultural center of Greek-Oriental world, in Egypt and spread Hellenistic culture. The city, built by Greek architect Democrat, had long straight street, theater, library, numerous churches, parks, gardens, baths. Here lived and worked great scientists, poets, artists, architects of the time. On the island of Pharos was built by famous Alexandria lighthouse (height 120 m) - one of the seven wonders of the world.

 

2.2. In IV-III millennium B.C. in Mesopotamia at the valley of the rivers Tigris and Euphrates emerged and established the culture itself both as high as in Egypt. It was one of the oldest centers of human civilization. However, in contrast to the Nile Valley, where he lived for three thousand years the same people and there was one and the same state - Ancient Egypt, in Mesopotamia quickly succeeded one another different state formations - Sumer, Akkad, Babylonia, Assyria, mixed, traded and fought with each other different peoples, erected quickly and utterly destroyed temples, fortresses, towns. More dynamic than in Egypt, were history and culture of Mesopotamia.
The oldest culture of Mesopotamia - Sumerian-Akkadian. According to most modern orientalists, the Sumerians are the progenitor of all the Babylonian culture. Their cultural achievements great and indisputable: Sumerians created the first in the history of the poem, wrote the first elegy, were the world's first library catalog. Sumerians were the authors of the first and oldest in the world of medical books - collections of recipes. They developed and wrote the first calendar for two seasons (winter and summer), which is divided into 12 months to 29 or 30 days each. They were the first information about the protective plantings, the first clay map is also the Sumerians, the first stringed musical instruments - harp and lyre also appeared in the Sumerians.
The oldest written language on Earth belongs to the same people - a Sumerian cuneiform. It is very decorative and is believed by researchers, originated from drawings. However, the old translations say that such type of writing there existed a more ancient way of fixing ideas - tying knots in rope. Over time painted writing and perfecting changed from complete, enough detailed and thorough picture of the Sumerians gradually transferred to its partial or symbolic images. The oldest written monument in the world are Sumerian cuneiform tablets - belong to the middle of IV century B.C. Cuneiform - a written signs which consist of groups of wedge risks they squeezed on raw clay. For a long time scientists believed that the Sumerians language not unlike any other known to mankind alive or dead languages, and the question of the origin of the people remained a mystery. But now we can consider that it Sumerians, as well as the language of the ancient Egyptians belonged to the Semitic-Hamitic language family.
Preserved many monuments of Sumerian literature - they are written on clay tablets, and almost all of them could read. Basically it hymns the gods, religious myths and legends, particularly about the origin of civilization and agriculture, which merits attributed to gods. In the Sumerian tablets, which are approximately made in 2800 B.C., the first recorded works of world famous poet - Enheduanny, daughter of Akkadian king Sargon. A summary of the rank of supreme priestess, she wrote several hymns in honor of the great temples and gods of the earth. The most important monument of Sumerian literature is the cycle of stories about Gilgamesh, the king of Uruk, the son of a mortal and goddess Ninsun. The legend of the hero Gilgamesh had a strong influence on the culture of neighboring peoples who adopted and adapted them to national life. The exceptionally strong influence on world literature provided the legend of the Deluge. In these stories, that the flood was arranged gods are designed to destroy all life on Earth.
Sumerian-Akkadian heiress civilization was Babylonia. In the middle of the II millennium B.C. the king Hammurabi (ruled at 1792-1750 B.C.) city of Babylon united under his rule all the regions of Sumer and Accad. When Hammurabi was famous summary of laws written in cuneiform of 2-metres high pillars. These laws reflected the economic life, world outlook of the ancient inhabitants of Mesopotamia. Worldview determined their need to constantly struggle with the surrounding tribes. All main interests were focused on reality. Babylonian priests did not promise wealth and joy in the kingdom of the dead, but if obedience promised them for life. In Babylonian art is almost no images of the funeral scenes. In general, religion, art and ideology of ancient Babylon were more realistic than in ancient Egypt.
A major role in the beliefs of the ancient inhabitants of Mesopotamia played the cult of water. Attitudes to water was not straightforward: the water source was considered goodwill, and that brings a harvest of life, water was a cult of fertility, but the water it is also powerful and evil element, the cause of destruction and disaster. Another very important cult was the worship of heavenly bodies. In their immutability and excellent movement on once and given the way the people of Babylon saw the manifestation of divine will. Attention to the stars and planets contributed to the rapid development of mathematics and astronomy. Babylonian astronomers for the first time in human history, laws have calculated the rotation of the Sun, Moon and repeatability of darkness, and in general is far ahead in astronomical observations of the Egyptians. However, all scientific knowledge and research scholars of Babylonia were associated with magic and divination, as scientific knowledge, and magical formulas and spells have the privilege of the wise men, priests. Scientific knowledge, for example in mathematics, often ahead of practical needs, because religious beliefs meet the spiritual needs of society.
According to the teachings of the Babylonian priests, men were made of clay, to serve the gods. Babylonian gods were numerous and the most important ones were: Shamash - Goddess of the Sun, the Son - god of the moon, Adad - the weather god, Ishtar - goddess of love and Nergal - god of death, Irra - god of war, humidity - the god of fire. The gods depicted as protectors of the king, indicating that clearance of ideology adoration strong imperial power. At the same time they humanized gods as the people they wanted to succeed, wanted to benefit, arranged his affairs, acting under the circumstances. They were indifferent to wealth, owned the property could give birth to their families and descendants. They had to drink and eat, like people, they, like people, were different inherent weaknesses and flaws: envy, anger, volatility. The gods determined the fate of people will know the same gods could only priests: they alone could and were able to induce and charm the spirits to speak with the gods, shape the future of the movement of celestial bodies. People obey the will of the priests and kings, believing in the doom of human fate in human higher forces, good and evil. But the resignation was not absolute: it is combined with the will of the people win in the fight against hostile environment of man. Constant awareness of the dangers to humans in the natural world combined with a desire to enjoy life. Riddles and fear, superstition, mysticism and magic combined with a sober mind, the exact calculation and pragmatism.
Religious beliefs of the ancient inhabitants of Mesopotamia appear in their monumental art. In cities were built temples dedicated to gods, and near the main temple of the local deity was usually “ziggurat” - high tower of brick, surrounded by protruding terraces that diminished in volume ledge by ledge. Such bench-terraces could be from 4 to 7 metres. Ziggurats were painted, and the lower slopes were darker than the top, and most terraces were usually planted. The upper tower is often ziggurat was also crowned with a golden dome. It was found the sanctuary of the god, his "home" where, as the Sumerians believed, was the god of night. Inside this tower there was nothing, but gilded bed and table. However, this tower used for more specific needs and the earth: the priests there were astronomical observation.
Buildings that survived allowed art historians to express the view that it is the Babylonian architects were the creators of architectural forms, which formed the basis of building art of ancient Rome and later medieval Europe. Many scientists believe that the prototypes of European architecture to be found in the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates. The main elements of this architecture were domes, arches, vaulted ceilings, etc.
Babylon was the greatest among ancient eastern cities, it was surrounded by powerful and thick wall, which couldn’t easily pass two chariot-horses. The town had 24 large booklets, attraction was 7-levels ziggurat of god Etemenanky (height 90 m) - Babel Tower - one of the seven wonders of the world. Planted terraces Babel tower, known as the Hanging Gardens of Babylon - the queen of Assyria, who lived in IX century B.C. - also one of the seven wonders of the world. About Babylon composed many legends, and scientists still have much to do to tell them the truth from fiction.
For Babylonian art was a picture of typical animals, but also great marble statuettes, depicting a group of male figures. Prominent features of these figurines have been more subtle in comparison with figurines from Egypt, processing components, significant realism and vividness of the image, somewhat less conventional.
Culture, religion and art borrowed from Babylonia and the Assyrians developed. In the ruins of the palace of King Ashurbanipal (VII century B.C.) In Nineveh scientists have found enormous for the time library, which consisted of tens of thousands of cuneiform texts. King Ashurbanipal was well educated man went down in history as a collector of ancient written monuments. Education, however, was not peculiar to the Assyrian rulers. More regular and permanent feature of Assyrian rulers were striving for power to rule over neighboring peoples, the desire to affirm and demonstrate their power.
Assyrian art imbued with the spirit of force, it glorified the victory of power and conquest. Famous Assyrian reliefs from the palace - the king is always a celebration - a powerful, terrible and merciless. Not by chance is characteristic Assyrian art - for unprecedented global art image imperial violence: there are scenes of planting circles, pulling captives in tongues in the presence of the king. It was the facts of everyday life of the state of Assyria, and these scenes transmitted without feeling regret. Cruelty Assyrian society combined, obviously, with its low religiosity. In cities of Assyria dominated not religious buildings and palaces and secular buildings, as well as in the reliefs and paintings of Assyrian palaces - not religious, and secular subjects. Great development in Assyrian art engineering has become - there was built the first water channels and aqueduct.
Instead of Babylon and Assyria Iranian empire in VI B.C came. Art of Iran is believed to researchers as the more secular and courtly than the art of his predecessors, but more quiet: there is almost no violence of which was peculiar to the art of Assyrians. However, the continuity of cultural remains. The most important element here is the fine art images of animals - is first of all, the winged bulls and lions and griffins. Were also widespread relief depicting ceremonial processions, soldiers, etc.
In the IV. B.C. Iran, like Egypt, was conquered by Alexander the Great and included in the sphere of influence of Hellenistic culture. Instead, in the III B.C. the ruling dynasty in Iran was Sassanid. They sought to prove that trace their descent from the gods, and to this end for their orders were created enormous reliefs depicting scenes from their victorious conquest wars. However, many cultural monuments of Sasanian Iran died in the fire of war. All that remains of the Sassanian high art - is the ruins of palaces and temples, dozens of gold and silver vessels, remains of silk fabrics and carpets. The walls of the palaces were decorated with murals with portraits of nobles, court beauties, musicians, and gods.
State religion in Sasanian Iran was zaroastryzm (by the name of the founder of this religion thinker Zoroaster (Zaroastra, 599/598- 522/521 B.C.) This theory explained the world as an arena of struggle between two opposing principles - good, fair and false, evil. The main deity that embodies good was Ahura Mazda, the bearer of bad beginning was Anhhro Maynyu. According to zaroastryzm man makes ethical decisions, while between these two forces. The important part of zaroastryzm was the cult of fire.
Changing the prevailing religion belongs to the VII century. When Iran was conquered by the Arabs, who for the sake of establishing a new religion - Islam, destroyed the blossoming of the country. The spread of Islam led to the emergence of new types of buildings - mosques, minarets, mausoleums. However great Sasanian art had a strong influence on the Arab Muslim culture, but because the Arabs - in Spain and other countries of Western Europe.

 

2.3. India is one of the oldest centers of human civilization with high culture. Its territory found a significant number of residual material culture period, the initial order, dated the Lower Paleolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic especially (various instruments hunt, carpenters, remnants of fabric, a variety of clay pots, etc.). In some old parks found examples of rock art depicting specific shapes of animals and humans, and as much as hunting scenes.
Excavations in the Indus Valley show presence here is already in the III-II millennium B.C. is colorful and unique culture. The culture of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa (so named for the site is the oldest urban settlements) end of III millennium B.C. is presented, along with the traditional tools of stone work, works in bronze and copper (axes, sickles, saws, knives, fishing hooks, arrowheads and spear). Residents of this valley were the first in the world learned to spin and weave, very high development reached the ancient Indian potters and jewelers. The most perfect among the ancient cities was the water supply and sanitation. In cities built two-and three-storey building with burnt bricks.
In antiquity in India begins to contain a rich and original research. Since the second half of the III millennium B.C. writing is known that there were about 400 icon components and symbols. In ancient sources, which are called the Vedas, preserved mention of agriculture (fertilizers, crop rotation, pests loaves, farming implements of iron etc.) Processing of metal (tin, copper, lead, silver, gold), of medicine (anatomy,pathology, therapy, surgery), the geometry (aspect ratio rectangle in constructing altars), about chess.
Real growth and flowering of Indian culture and science reached in the III-II centuries BC -VIII century B.C. During this period the Indian scientists was established decimal number system, the modern image figures (later named in a slightly amended form in Arabic). Were known to calculate the square and cubic roots, arithmetic and geometric progression, principles of trigonometry and algebra. Astronomers calculated fairly accurately the movement of celestial bodies. Twelve months (30 days each) was divided into six seasons. Every five years, the 13th month was added. It was known difference in the length of day and night in different latitudes of the globe for Indians. Ancient Indian astronomers knew about Earth sphericity, assumed its rotation around its axis. Knowledge in chemistry allow production of acids, paints, medicines, perfumes, cement, metal salts, complex preparations of mercury.
Since the end of II - beginning of the I B.C. reached the present day monuments of ancient Indian literature - the Vedas, ancient Indian made (Vedic) language. Vedic literature is represented by collections of hymns and sacrificial formulas ("Rigveda", "Samaveda", "Yadzhurveda", "Atharvaveda"). Close to the Vedic literature approaching "sacred orders," including sutras - the management of sacrificial rituals, laws and regulations of home life (one of these parts - "Kama Sutra" - a treatise on the art of love). The most valuable source for studying the ancient Indian social and economic relations, as well as science and culture of the first half of I millenium B.C. was epic literature. The main monuments of epic literature is the "Mahabharata" and "Ramayana", written in Sanskrit in the first centuries A.D., but basically already existing in the IV B.C. Plot was based on "Mahabharata" ("The Great War descendants of Bharat") - a struggle for power inside one of the most powerful royal families of Northern India, descendants of the mythical king Bharat. The ancient tale of a bloody war over time overgrown lots more episodes, with various stories and legends (myths of creation, the flood), reflections on religious and philosophical and other topics. Great harmony of composition and careful handling different poem "Ramayana", which tells about the victory of Prince Rama over Ravana the king of demons. For over two millennium both these poems are very popular, and their characters - Krishna ("Mahabharata") and Rama ("Ramayana") - deified and considered the embodiment of Vishnu - one of the most important gods of modern Hinduism.
Examples of popular wisdom contains numerous Indian folk tales, fables, stories. They are simple people have the courage, honesty, ingenuity, and those in power often show critical of humor. Based on folk and religious images in ancient India developed drama. Its founder was the dance pantomime accompanied by commentary by the narrator, later talking and actors. The real classic of ancient Indian drama and lyrical poetry found Kalidas (IV-V B.C.). In his dramas, stories are taken from the epic, revealing the inner world of characters. Together with the prose dialogues and monologues verses they contain, and dancing-song interlude. Considerable scope and historical significance of canonical religious literature, biography of Buddha, religious treatises. The high level of ancient Indian literature also suggest working on theoretical issues of poetry and literature in general, with elaborate grammar of Sanskrit language.
Significant place in the artistic culture of ancient India took music. As a part of national celebration, the theater expressed the unity of singing, instrumental music, rich in facial expressions and gestures of dance.
Perfection reached the ancient Indian art (crafts, fresco painting) as well as architecture. It is peculiar richness of plastic and expressive images, courage creative imagination, complexity and variety of compositions, skill transfer movements and sensations. Late art and architecture of India's rich urban buildings of brick and sculpture (depicting animals, people, deities), painted ceramics, jewelry. Monumentality forms combined with luxury treatment, front of the palace were decorated with balconies and arches. Statues of gods and men differed estate postures, monumentality and power forms. With the spread of Buddhism have created new places of worship - mortar. Early mortars served for storing relics of the Buddha. Later mortar became hemispheric shape, symbol of heaven and infinity. Wide dissemination of a day Maurya, Kushan dynasty and Gupta was a monumental sculpture made of stone. Today, these statues are impressive monumentality of the image, completeness and perfection of form.
The Gupta Dynasty (IV-V B.C.) left the art of India are small, harmonious, graceful form of temples. Riposte observation in everyday scenes, images of animals, architecture, combined with great decorative skill, a kind of rhythm, colorful, freedom in building multifigured scenes, based on national trends were realistic.
In the literature, formed in the II millennium B.C., according to the development of slave relations, there are different categories of slaves. In "Laws of Manu", which reflect the socio-political system of India VI. B.C., found justification for the social division of labor, the relation of domination and subjugation. Strict differentiation of ancient Indian society due to social origin and nature of the activity ended with the formation of closed social groups:
• over the states - four of Varna;
• for professional activities - caste (only about 3.5 thousand).
In literature they are called generalized varna-caste system. Later became known Varna dzhati, among them such as:
•Brahmins
•Kshatriyas
•Vayshias
•Shudras.
Tribal aristocracy was the first preference of Varna - the Brahmins (priestly representatives of noble families that make contact with the deity, and the rulers of the state) and Kshatriyas (representatives of the military aristocracy), designed to provide each other mutual support. Working population included in Varna were Vayshiyas and Shudras. Vayshiyas engaged in economic activities - agriculture, handicrafts and commerce and shudras humbly serve members of other castes. They were disenfranchised and dispossessed. Outside castes were former slaves and members of professions that violated the public, and then they made numerous caste "untouchables".
In the process of formation of the slave system Varnas order declared perpetually existing procedure, the result of divine providence and religion. The most common theological version, god-creator of all things - Brahma created the Brahmins from his mouth, Kshatriyas - with hands Vayshiyas - with thighs and Shudras - with feet.Borders, which affected over time between Varna, introduced a ban on mixed marriages and the transition from one Varna to another. This is reflected in the laws of life - Dharma.
Sustainable caste system, adding originality Indian social life, however, impeded the economic, political and cultural development of the country, leaving numerous segments of society in poverty and ignorance. Unalterable division of society into a closed social groups with different rights and duties of various positions in the society found its justification in religion in India, which has been long and winding road of its gradual formation. Kind of reflection of the early stage of Hinduism became Vedic religion. And in B.C. new phase of development begins to define Hinduism Brahmanism. Religion used to justify social inequality. Gradually up the hierarchy of gods and supreme among them is Brahma (the creator of the universe), Vishnu (preserving it) and Shiva (his destructive). The basis of this doctrine is the recognition of suffering, human misery insignificant, because the whole world - only an illusion. The reality is the existence of the spirit world (Brahma). Priests (Brahmins) argued that the submission of work, humility, lack of envy for the rich and noble souls of the deceased will be reborn into human bodily shell of a higher social position, and vice versa.
In VI B.C. ideology developed slave society is Buddhism, which together with Christianity and Islam was one of the world's great religions. His flourishing in India occurred in the V century B.C. - early I millennium B.C. Being closely related to the Vedic religion and Brahmanism, Buddhism proved that life - is evil and live - then suffer. However, it is not necessary to seek recovery in another creature, since it would entail further suffering. Moreover, Buddhism opposed the inherent of brahmanizm predominance of external forms of religious life. In the center of Buddhism - the doctrine of "four noble truths": suffering, its causes, the state of liberation and path. It is ideal to strive - nirvana - the state with no earthly desires, failure of the world and all life preferences. Face of Buddha, a hermit and traveling preacher, mythological contacted finding the true path to salvation, deliverance from suffering for ourselves and all mankind.
One of the richest in the history of world culture was the same Buddhist mythology. It has a very valuable combination, the interaction of a wide range of mythological characters and scenes with deep philosophy. Great its impact on literature and art was felt both in India and abroad. Ancient and medieval temples in India, Nepal, Tibet, China, Japan, Burma, Thailand, Cambodia and other Asian countries adorn the numerous statues and icons from Buddhist mythology.
Around the same time (VI century B.C.) Jainism emerged in India. In his religious-philosophical treatises - Sutra - contains the doctrine of liberation from the bonds of samsara (reincarnation of souls). This can be achieved through three treasures of Jainism: correct knowledge (doctrine), the correct vision (true) and correct behavior. A practical way to salvation lies in the strictest observance of regulations and in strict asceticism.
So, at the end I millennium B.C. as a result of Vedic religion, the Brahmanizm, the process further assimilation of folk beliefs formed one of the most numerous by the number of followers of religions of the world - Hinduism. It is based on the teachings of:
• reincarnation of souls (samsara), which is in accordance with the law giving (karma) for Integrity or bad behavior;
• respect for the supreme gods or their avatars;
• observance of caste in everyday household rules;
• sacralization of certain animals, plants, natural objects (considered sacred cow, snake, lotus, the river Ganges).

 

2.4. China has launched one of the most original and greatest civilizations of the planet. The inhabitants of ancient China - one of the first countries on Earth - have created a unique, interesting and original culture, both material and spiritual. The Chinese people sincerely believe that life - a creation of divine, supernatural power, that everything in the world is in motion and constantly changing as a result of collision of two opposing cosmic forces - light and darkness. In ancient times the Chinese, as well as by other nations, was the peculiar cult of nature: they worshiped the spirits of mountains, land, rivers, sun, moon, rain, wind, etc.. These spirits were praying, they sacrificed, they asked for a good harvest. Among them stood out above all, the presiding deity who stands above all the spirits and souls of the dead people. Later there was the deification of imperial power. King was recognized as the son of heaven, that is representative of God on earth. From the XIII century B.C. kings used to denote the same characters, which previously affected only the presiding deity. It was also a strong cult of ancestors. At the heart of it lay the notion that the human soul after death continues to live and more - it can interfere in the affairs of the living. The Chinese believed that the soul of the deceased retains all the old habits, so together with the deceased slaveholders buried his servants and slaves, and in grave laid weapons, jewelry, household items.
In the middle of I millennium B.C. China issued three major ideological trends, which later transformed into philosophical and religious systems. These were Taoism, Confucianism and Buddhism, which first emerged in India, but soon widely spread in China. These teachings have played a huge role in history and continue to exert considerable influence on Chinese life and this day.
One of these studies was Taoism, whose founder, sage Lao Tzu, lived in China at the turn of VI-V B.C. The main philosophical category of Taoism is Tao - the law. Worldwide, according to Taoism, the only slave law - the Tao. Tao is the basis and source of everything that exists, but its defining feature is natural. Tao provides a variety of things and phenomena in nature, nature, the real world - depends on the Tao, not the "divine will" or other supernatural forces. Philosophical Taoism argued that man is not able to change the natural order of things, so the fate of man as passive contemplation of the natural course of events and the desire to understand the Tao. Thus, supporters of Taoism preached renunciation of action and put forward the theory of non-doing. This theory - the fundamental principle of Taoism.
The Philosophical Taoism in the beginning of our era there was a religious Taoism. Its basis was the notion of absolute Tao, the essence of which was limited to the following statement: life - is an illusion, death - is returning to the Tao - the true existence of an immortal soul. Further Tao "science of immortality" was a mixture of shamanism, witchcraft, astrology and demonology. In China, established the monastery in which lived hundreds of thousands of Taoist monks, and they receive income from land and from his religious activities. The activity of monks and priests had a very different: they predicted fate, fortune telling, were the expulsion of evil spirits, spells and amulets traded, determined the best, that is free from "evil spirits" space for buildings and graves, to determine days and hours are good for any affairs, marriage, funerals, sending the road. Believing that the soul of the deceased is able to influence the fate of the living priests and monks tried to appease her a good place to bury the body, exact observance of all rites at the funeral. Religious Taoism as well as earlier philosophical, preached the idea of ​​non-action and non-resistance.
At the same time at late VI - early V B.C. China faces another major religious and ideological system - Confucianism. Its founder was a preacher of Kung Fu-Tzu (551 - 479 B.C.), known as transcription in the European Confucius. Cause of all disasters and unrest in a society in decline, he thought morals, believing that the basic human virtues are loyalty, obedience, respect for parents and elders. Therefore, the first and great commandment, given to Confucius, sounded like "respect their parents and respect for elders is the whole being of life" . Confucius advocated strict regulation of responsibilities of each member of society according to its position: "If people learn to control oneself and to observe the ritual, the Celestial Empire will come to all of humanity." He believed that all the fullness of power in the country should belong to the emperor - "son of heaven" . "Emperor - Confucius said - is the father of the people and the people are his children."
Confucius relied on the cult of ancestors and considered it expedient to preserve the traditions and principles (the rituals), the observance of ancient rituals - ceremonies, consolidation in the social life of the old rules. He did not show much interest in the philosophical problems of life, his teachings are first set of rules, moral principles, which lay at the heart of a cult of obedience to the elders by age and position, and the idealization of antiquity.
In the II-I B.C. Confucianism became the dominant ideology of the ruling classes. His face is surrounded by a halo of sanctity in his honor start to build temples. Confucius was canonized on the basis of his teachings and ancient religious beliefs there Confucianism as a religious system that sanctified the idea of ​​total domination and subjugation. Main content of Confucianism is a deification of the emperor and the dedication of its power, the emperor worshiped as viceroy of God on earth. This religion borrowed from the ancient beliefs of many gods and spirits, whose number always grew up by the deification of certain historical figures. All the gods were divided into categories: higher education included the presiding deity, Lord of earth and dead ancestors of the emperor. In the middle category were the gods of the sun, moon, thunder, rain, wind, Confucius himself and 188 rulers of the past, and in the lower are the gods of war and fire, local spirits of the land, rivers, patron of the city.
Confucianism did not have a special caste of priests as the functions of high priest served the emperor, communication with minor deities had the privilege of public officials. The authorities knew perfectly Confucian literature, because it was the main criterion for the selection of the service, they were the main guardians of Confucian precepts.
Thus, the Confucian state and religion are the only political, administrative and ideological system, the essence of which was to consolidate the old social norms, people achieve total obedience and worship him supreme power. This idea influented on long existing in China the idea of ​​unquestioning obedience and respect for older vintage standards, even in the II century B.C. violation punishable by transformation of these traditions on public servants of both the offender and his family. With the development of Confucianism was developing criteria for evaluation of actions, from household to government. The men were required to consistently adhere to the obligations of duty. A woman should always be gentle and obedient husband, and her main duty was defined as a service to man, diligence in work and procreation. Since it is not required to stand out talent, intelligence, eloquence and wit are not required to either appeal or beauty. Ideal women was a submissive wife, ready to follow her husband even in the grave.
Strict regulation of life and was the ancient Chinese. Thus, traders and usurer forbidden to dress in brocade and silk clothing, carry weapons, ride in chariots and on horseback. It was the right landed aristocracy, but even they, the most famous people in the country, were not the sole masters of their fates: in any time as directed by the emperor could move them from one estate to another, to deprive of property or even life.
At the turn of our era in China Buddhism began to spread, which originated in India in the VI century B.C. There are two areas in Buddhism: hinayana ("small chariot"), which was proposed at the forefront of human perfection, and Mahayana ("great chariot"), which preached tolerance and compassion. According to Buddhism, life is an endless series of reincarnations, while remaining always evil and suffering. Exit Buddhists saw in passivity, the refusal of the joys of life, the suppression of all desires. Spirit is eternal, Buddhists believe, the same matter has a beginning and an end. Material world does not exist independently, it is only a manifestation of the mystical spirit. By IV B.C. Buddhist church in China was great economic, political and religious power, powerful church organization that united tens of thousands of Buddhist temples and monasteries, thousands of monks and nuns. Later, however, Buddhism, as well as Taoism, give the way to Confucianism.
It is noteworthy that all the religious systems of China have much in common: they all have inherent respect for elders and ancestors, the cult of obedience, the idea of ​​"inaction", passive, contemplative relationship to reality. Man as an individual did not constitute a distinct, separate values ​​and a society living on the principle of "personal - nothing for the state and collective."
Scientific knowledge in ancient China was with many significant achievements. Already in the V century B.C. ancient Chinese knew the properties of right triangle, in the first century B.C. was created treatise "Mathematics in nine chapters", which summarized mathematical knowledge developed in China for several centuries. Chinese scientists for the first time in human history have introduced the concept of negative numbers. The ancient Chinese and include many technical inventions: the magnetic device, the predecessor of the compass (III century B.C.), water mill, a machine-pump that extracted water to the surface, the world's first seismograph. Actively developed astronomy: already in the II millennium B.C. Chinese divided the year into 12 months, a month on four weeks. With the V century B.C. they were regular astronomical observations, dividing the sky in the constellation, in particular identified 28 constellations. In the IV B.C. the first in the world history of star catalog of 800 stars was made. In 28 B.C. Chinese for the first time in human history have described the spots on the sun, even after two centuries astronomer Zhang Heng created the world's first celestial globe that plays the movement of celestial bodies. Significant progress achieved and medicine. And there was compiled directory of medical books, which were collected recipes for many diseases, created a treatise on pharmacology.
Modern ideas of scientists about the religious and spiritual life of ancient China based on written sources, some of them were made in ancient times. It is known that in the XV century B.C. in China there was a developed system of hieroglyphic writing, which included more than 2000 characters. Prior are the earliest monuments of ancient Chinese literature "The Book of Songs", which contain over 300 songs and poems, and "Book of Changes" were written.
The Chinese had a very long written on silk with natural dyes, but at the turn of our era invented ink and paper, which were made of rags and bark. Number of characters in that time has exceeded 3 thousand extremely rapid development of Chinese writing is characteristic of the early centuries of our era: in the II century number of characters made up more than 10 thousand in the IIIth - more than 18 thousands at that time was introduced only for the country style of writing, which later formed the basis of Chinese writing. At the same time were drawn and the first dictionaries, while the imperial courts created an extensive library.
The first known Chinese historian Sima Qian was the author of "Historical Notes", and his style and method of presentation were the subject of zealous imitation.
In the cultural life of China's important Buddhist monasteries began to play. Across the country, they built grand monastic complexes carved into the rock strata, as well as wooden Buddhist temples and tall stacked tower, where Buddhist relics were kept. Most famous of them - 60-meter-high seven-story Big Wild geese (652 was). They were built with different materials - wood, brick, iron. This type of structure was the main and dominant in China for many centuries. In the III B.C. China had built more than 700 imperial palaces, one of which was enormous: its central hall could accommodate more than 10,000 people. Monasteries were decorated with sculptures of Buddha and Buddhist deities. Huge statues of the Buddha embodied the idea of ​​superhuman and divine.
The time when the country was united into a single centralized state (221-207 B.C.), marked by the construction of the main part of the Great Wall, which is partially preserved to our time. Zheng ruler of the Qin Dynasty united under his rule all the scattered state and became the first Chinese emperor. He became famous as a place of burial: that after death based on military force, he ordered the creation of 6,000 soldiers and their horses in size, which after his death were buried with him.
Developings made in China and crafts: making bronze mirrors decorated with a very thin thread, and in II millennium B.C. were developed carving jade and bone. Improved ceramic art, thus preparing the ground for production in the IV B.C. porcelain and earthenware. In VII-VIII century principal place among other arts took painting. It reflected and inducing people to the beauty of the universe and nature, and urban life at that time. Already in the II millennium B.C. Chinese were known for more than two dozen musical instruments: drum, flute, bell metal, plucked stringed instruments, wind - made of bamboo, clay and others. And there were treatises on music, created a special waiting in charge of which there were training musicians and dancers, oversee the implementation of song and dance music and its management. Thus, these areas of culture were also strictly regulated and subject to despotic state.

Questions:
1. In which regions of the world centers of civilized life and early statehood first appeared?
2. Which countries and peoples belong to Mesopotamia?
3. What was the principle of sacredness in the social and cultural life of ancient peoples?
4. Where and when born the oldest system of writing, and it was a …?
5. Name the most outstanding achievements in science and architecture of the Ancient East.
6. What arts were developed in Sumer, Babylon, Egypt, India and China?
7. Remember prominent thinkers, scientists, artists and statesmen of the Ancient East.