SYNTAGMATIC CONNECTIONS OF WORDS

§ 1. Performing their semantic functions, words in an utterance form various syntagmatic connections with one another.

One should distinguish between syntagmatic groupings of notional words alone, syntagmatic groupings of notional words with functional words, and syntagmatic groupings of functional words alone.

Different combinations of notional words (notional phrases) have a clearly pronounced self-dependent nominative destination, they de­note complex phenomena and their properties in their inter-connections, including dynamic inter-connections (semi-predicative combina­tions). Cf:. a sudden trembling; a soul in pain; hurrying along the stream; to lead to a cross-road; strangely familiar; so sure of their aims.

Combinations of a notional word with a functional word are equivalent to separate words by their nominative function. Since a functional word expresses some abstract relation, such combinations, as a rule, are quite obviously non-self-dependent; they are, as it were, stamped as artificially isolated from the context. Cf:. in a low voice; with difficulty; must finish; but a moment; and Jimmy, too cold; so unexpectedly.

We call these combinations "formative" ones. Their contextual dependence ("synsemantism") is quite natural; functionally they may be compared to separate notional words used in various marked grammatical forms (such as, for instance, indirect cases of nouns).

Cf.: Ens.Mr. Snow's-of Mr. Snow; him-to him; Russ. Ива­нов - к Иванову; лесом - через лес.

Expanding the cited formative phrases with the corresponding notional words one can obtain notional phrases of contextually self-dependent value ("autosemantic" at their level of functioning). Cf.: Eng. Mr. Snow's considerations - the considerations of Mr. Snow, gave it him-gave it to him; Russ. позвонили Иванову - позвони­ли к Иванову; шли лесом-шли через лес.

In this connection we should remember that among the notional word-classes only the noun has a full nominative force, for it directly names a substance. Similarly, we may assert that among various phrase-types it is the noun-phrase that has a full phrasal nominative force (see further).

As for syntagmatic groupings of functional words, they are essen­tially analogous to separate functional words and are used as con­nectors and specifiers of notional elements of various status. Cf.: out of; up to; so that; such as; must be able; don't let's.

Functional phrases of such and like character constitute limited groups supplementing the corresponding subsets of regular one-item functional words, as different from notional phrases which, as free combinations, form essentially open subsets of various semantic des­tinations.

§ 2. Groupings of notional words fall into two mutually opposite types by their grammatical and semantic properties.

Groupings of the first type are constituted by words related to one another on an equal rank, so that, for a case of a two-word combination, neither of them serves as a modifier of the other. De­pending on this feature, these combinations can be called "equipotent".

Groupings of the second type are formed by words which are syntactically unequal in the sense that, for a case of a two-word combination, one of them plays the role of a modifier of the other. Due to this feature, combinations of the latter type can be called "dominational".

§ 3. Equipotent connection in groupings of notional words is re­alised either with the help of conjunctions (syndetically), or without the help of conjunctions (asyndetically). Cf.: prose and poetry, came and went; on the beach or in the water; quick but not careless; no sun, no moon; playing, chatting, laughing; silent, immovable, gloomy; Mary's, not John's.

In the cited examples, the constituents of the combinations form logically consecutive connections that are classed as coordinative. Alongside these, there exist equipotent connections of a non-con­secutive type, by which a sequential element, although equal to the foregoing element by its formal introduction (coordinative conjunc­tion), is unequal to it as to the character of nomination. The latter-type of equipotent connections is classed as "cumulative".

The term "cumulation" is commonly used to mean connections between separate sentences. By way of restrictive indications, we may speak about "inner cumulation", i.e. cumulation within the sentence, and, respectively, "outer cumulation".

Cumulative connection in wrijting is usually signalled by some intermediary punctuation stop, such as a comma or a hyphen. Cf.: Eng. agreed, but reluctantly; quick - and careless; satisfied, or nearly so. Russ. сыт, но не очень; согласен, или почти согласен; дал - да неохотно.

Syndetic connection in a word-combination can alternate with asyndetic connection, as a result of which the whole combination can undergo a semantically motivated subgrouping. Cf.:

He is a little man with irregular features, soft dark eyes and a soft voice, very shy, with a gift of mimicry and a love of music (S. Maugham).

In enumerative combinations the last element, in distinction to the foregoing elements, can be introduced by a conjunction, which underlines the close of the syntagmatic series. Cf.:

All about them happy persons were enjoying the good things of life, talking, laughing, and making merry (S. Maugham).

The same is true about combinations formed by repetition. E.g.:

There were rows of books, books and books everywhere.

§ 4. Dominational connection, as different from equipotent con­nection, is effected in such a way that one of the constituents of the combination is principal (dominating) and the other is subordinate (dominated). The principal element is commonly called the "kernel", "kernel element", or "head-word"; the subordinate element, respec­tively, the "adjunct", "adjunct-word", "expansion".

Dominational connection is achieved by different forms of the word (categorial agreement, government), connective words (preposi­tions, i.e. prepositional government), word-order.

Dominational connection, like equipotent connection, can be both consecutive and cumulative. Cf:. a careful observer- -an observer, seemingly careful; definitely out of the point- -out of the point, definitely, will be helpful in any case- -will be helpful, at least in some cases.

The two basic types of dominational connection are bilateral (reciprocal, two-way) domination and monolateral (one-way) domina­tion. Bilateral domination is realized in predicative connection of words, while monolateral domination is realized in completive con­nection of words.

§ 5. The predicative connection of words, uniting the subject and the predicate, builds up the basis of the sentence. The reciprocal nature of this connection consists in the fact that the subject domi­nates the predicate determining the person of predication, while the predicate dominates the subject, determining the event of predication, i.e. ascribing to the predicative person some action, or state, or quality. This difference in meaning between the elements of predica­tion, underlying the mutually opposite directions of domination, ex­plains the seeming paradox of the notion of reciprocal domination, exposing its dialectic essence. Both directions of domination in a predicative group can be demonstrated by a formal test.

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The domination of the subject over the predicate is exposed by the reflective character of the verbal category of person and also the verbal category of number which is closely connected with the for­mer.

The English grammatical forms of explicit subject-verb agreement (concord) are very scarce (the inflexion marking the third person singular present, and some special forms of the verb be). Still, these scarce forms are dynamically correlated with the other, grammatically non-agreed forms. Cf.: he went - he goes - -I went -I go.

But apart from the grammatical forms of agreement, the predica­tive person is directly reflected upon the verb-predicate as such; the very semantics of the person determines the subject reference of the predicative event (action, state, quality). Thus, the subject uncondi­tionally dominates over the predicate by its specific substantive cate­gories in both agreed, and non-agreed forms of predicative connec­tion.

As for the predicate dominating the subject in its own sphere of grammatical functions, this fact is dearly demonstrated by the corre­lation of the sentence and the corresponding noun-phrase. Namely, the transformation of the sentence into the noun-phrase places the predicate in the position of the head-word, and the subject, in the position of the adjunct. Cf.:

The train arrived. →The arrival of the train.

Alongside fully predicative groupings of the subject and the finite verb-predicate, there exist in language partially predicative groupings formed by a combination of a non-finite verbal form (verbid) with a substantive element. Such are infinitival, gerundial, and participial constructions.

The predicative person is expressed in the infinitival construction by the prepositional for-phrase, in the gerundial construction by the possessive or objective form of the substantive, in the participial con­struction by the nominative (common) form of the substantive. Cf:.

The pupil understands his mistake →for the pupil to under­stand his mistake→ the pupil's) understanding his mistake → the pupil understanding his mistake.

In the cited semi-predicative (or potentially-predicative) combina­tions the "event "-expressing element is devoid of the formal agree­ment with the "person"-expressing element, but the two directions of domination remain valid by virtue of the very predicative nature of the syntactic connection in question (although presented in an in­complete form).

Thus, among the syntagmatic connections of the reciprocal domi­nation the two basic subtypes are distinguished: first, complete pred­icative connections, second, incomplete predicative connections (semi-predicative, potentially-predicative connections).

§ 6. The completive, one-way connection of words (monolateral domination) is considered as subordinative on the ground that the outer syntactic status of the whole combination is determined by the kernel element (head-word). Cf:.

She would be reduced to a nervous wreck. →She would be re­duced to a wreck. → She would be reduced. That woman was as­tonishingly beautiful. →That woman was beautiful.

In the cited examples the head-word can simply be isolated through the deletion of the adjunct, the remaining construction being structurally complete, though schematic. In other cases, the head­word cannot be directly isolated, and its representative nature is to be exposed, for instance, by diagnostic questions. Cf.:

Larry greeted the girl heartily. → Whom did Larry greet? → How did Larry greet the girl?

The questions help demonstrate that the verb is presupposed as the kernel in its lines of connections, i.e. objective and adverbial ones.

All the completive connections fall into two main divisions: ob­jective connections and qualifying connections.

Objective connections reflect the relation of the object to the process and are characterized as, on the whole, very close. By their form these connections are subdivided into non-prepositional (word-order, the objective form of the adjunct substantive) and preposi­tional, while from the semantico-syntactic point of view they are classed as direct (the immediate transition of the action to the ob­ject) and indirect or oblique (the indirect relation of the object to the process). Direct objective connections are non-prepositional, the preposition serving as an intermediary of combining words by its functional nature. Indirect objective connections may be both prepo­sitional and non-prepositional. Since, on the other hand, some prepo­sitional objective connections, in spite of their being indirect, still come very near to direct ones in terms of closeness of the process-substance relation expressed, all the objective connections may be di­vided into "narrow" and "broader". Semantically, narrow preposi­tional objective connections are then to be classed together with di­rect objective connections, the two types forming the corresponding subclasses of non-prepositional (direct) and prepositional (indirect) narrow objective connections of words. Cf:.

He remembered the man. I won't stand any more nonsense. I sympathized with the child. They were working on the problem. Etc.

Сf.: examples of broader indirect objective connections, both non-prepositional and prepositional:

Will you show me the picture? Who(m) did he buy it for? Tom peeped into the hall. Etc.

Further subdivision of objective connections is realized on the ba­sis of subcategonzing the elements of objective combinations, and first of all the verbs; thus, we recognize objects of immediate action, of perception, of speaking, etc.

Objective connection may also combine an adjunct substance word with a kernel word of non-verbal semantics (such as a state or a property word), but the meaning of some processual relation is still implied in the deep semantic base of such combinations all the same. Cf.: aware of John's presence → am aware; crazy about her →got crazy about her; full of spite →is full of spite; etc.

Qualifying completive connections are divided into attributive and adverbial. Both are expressed in English by word-order and preposi­tions.

Attributive connection unites a substance with its attribute ex­pressed by an adjective or a noun. E.g.: an enormous appetite; an emerald ring; a woman of strong character, the case for the prose­cution; etc.

Adverbial connection is subdivided into primary and secondary.

The primary adverbial connection is established between the verb and its adverbial modifiers of various standings. E.g.: to talk glibly, to come nowhere; to receive (a letter) with surprise", to throw (one's arms) round a person's neck; etc.

The secondary adverbial connection is established between the non-verbal kernel expressing a quality and its adverbial modifiers of various standings. E.g.: marvellously becoming; very much at ease; strikingly alike; no longer oppressive; unpleasantly querulous; etc.

§ 7. Different completive noun combinations are distinguished by a feature that makes them into quite special units on the phrasemic level of language. Namely, in distinction to all the other combina­tions of words they are directly related to whole sentences, i.e. predicative combinations of words. This fact was illustrated above when we described the verbal domination over the subject in a predicative grouping of words (see §5). Compare some more exam­ples given in the reverse order:

The arrival of the train →The train arrived. The baked potatoes→The potatoes are baked. The gifted pupil → The pupil has a gift.

Completive combinations of adjectives and adverbs (adjective-phrases and adverb-phrases), as different froni noun combinations (noun-phrases), are related to predicative constructions but indirectly, through the intermediary stage of the corresponding noun-phrase. Cf.: utterly neglected - utter neglect-The neglect is utter; very care­fully-great carefulness - The carefulness is great; speechlessly re­proachful-speechless reproach-The reproach is speechless.

These distinctions of completive word combinations are very im­portant to understand for analysing paradigmatic relations in syntax (see further).