Metaphor

Lecture V

Lexical EM and SD

Interaction of Different Types of Lexical Meaning

Words in context, as it was pointed out, may acquire additional lexical meanings not fixed in dictionaries, what is called contextual meanings.The latter may sometimes deviate the dictionary meaning to such a degree that the new meaning even becomes the opposite of the primary meaning, as for example with the word sophisticated . The word sophisticated primary or originally meant "wise", then "over-subtle" - "adulterated"; "Corrupted" - meant admirably wordly - wise. This is known to linguistics as transferred meaning, or other words the interrelation between two types of lexical meaning: dictionary and contextual. When the deviation from the acknowledged meaning is carried to a degree that it causes an unexpected turn in a recognized logical meanings, we register a stylistic device.

Interaction of Primary Dictionary and Contextually Imposed Meanings

Metaphor

The term "metaphor", as the etymology of the word reveal means, transference of some quality from one object to another. A metaphor becomes a

SD when two different phenomena (things, events, ideas, actions) are simultaneously brought to mind by the imposition of some or all of the inherent properties.Metaphor(Greek origin - перенос).

Example: I. The machine (автоматическая деловитость) /подлежащее/ sitting at that desk was no longer a man, it was a busy New York broker. (O. Henry)

2. Some books are to be tasted, others swallowed ... /predicate/ (Byron)

3. All the life about him was a dream, /predicate/

Metaphor may be divided into simple or elementary and prolonged or sustained (сложная или развернутая). Simple metaphor consists of one word or word-combination and denotes the transference of meaning from one word to another.

Prolonged metaphor - is revived by the direct meaning. This context refreshes the almost dead metaphor and gives it a second life.

"Mr. Dombey's " cup of satisfaction was so full at this moment, however, that he felt he could afford a drop-or two of its contents, even to sprinkle on the dust in the by-path of his little daughter." (Dickens, Dombey and Son). In this sentence the word "cup" is revived by the following contributory images: full, drop, contents, sprinkle. The word conveying both the central image (cup) and the contributory images are used in two senses simultaneously: direct and indirect. The second plane of utterance is maintained by the key word -satisfaction. It is this word that helps to decipher the idea behind the sustained metaphor.

Example of a simple metaphor:

A good book is the best of friends, the same today and forever. (Tupper)

Metonymy(Greek origin- переименование)

Metonymy is based on a different type of relation between the dictionary and contextual meaning, a relation based not on identification, but on some kind of association connecting the two concepts which these meanings represent.

Example: I. The messenger was not long in returning, followed by a pair of heavy boots that came bumping along the passage like boxes. (Dickens)

2. She looked out of her window one day and gave her heart to the grocer's young man. (O. Henry)

Thus, the word "crown" may stand for "king or queen", "cup or glass" for the drink it contains.

The examples of metonymy given above are traditional. In fact they are derivative logical meanings and therefore fixed in dictionaries. However, when such meanings are included in dictionaries there is usually a label fig (figurative use). This means that the new meaning has not replaced the primary one, but, as it were, co-exists with it.

Still the new meaning has become so common that it is easily predictable and therefore does not bear any additional information which is an indispensable condition for an SD. Other examples: 1. The hall applaud. 2, "As the sword is the best argument that can be used, so should it be the last." (Byron)

Irony (Greek - скрытая насмешка )

Irony is a SD also based on the simultaneous realization of two logical meanings - dictionary and contextual, but the two meanings stand in opposition to each other.

For example: "It must be delightful to find oneself in a foreign country without a penny in a pocket."

The word "delightful" acquires a meaning quite the opposite to its primary dictionary meaning, that is "unpleasant", not "delightful"

Irony must not be confused with humour, although they have very much in common. Humour is always causes laughter. What is funny must come as a sudden clash of the positive and the negative. In this respect Irony can be likened to humour. But the function of irony is not confined to producing a humorous effect.

Richard Altick says: "Irony and its effect lies in the striking disparity between what is said and what is meant." This "striking disparity" is achieved through the intentional interplay of two meanings which are in oppositions to each other.