Foreign words
Foreign words do not belong to the English vocabulary. They are not registered by English dictionaries except in a kind of addenda (приложение) which give the meanings of the foreign words most frequent used in literary English. Barbarisms are generally given in the body of the dictionary in printed works (работах). Foreign words are phrased as generally italicized (выделять курсивом) to indicate their alien nature or their stylistic value.
There are foreign words in English vocabulary which fulfill a terminological function such as perestroika, silovik, and apparatchik, soviet, kolkhoz
Retrograde – уже прочно вошел
They denote certain concepts which reflect an objective reality non familiar to English speaking communities. There are no names for them in English and so they have to be explained. New concepts of this time are generally given the names they have in the language of the people whose reality they reflect.
It is such words as solo, concerto, tenor, Luftwaffe, blitzkrieg (блиц крик), blitz.
They should also be distinguished from barbarisms, they are terms. Terminological borrowings have no synonyms.
Function of foreign words
supply local color
build up the stylistic devices
47. literary coinages
Every period in the development of a language produces an enormous number of new words or new meanings of established words. Most of them do not live long. They are coined for use at the moment of speech, and therefore possess a peculiar property – that of temporariness. The given word or meaning holds only in the given context and is meant only to “serve the occasion”. However, a word or a meaning once fixed in writing may become part and parcel of the general vocabulary irrespective of the quality of the word.
The coining of new words generally arises with the need to designate new concepts and also with the need to express nuances of meaning called forth by a deeper understanding of the nature of the phenomenon in question. There are 2 types of newly coined words: 1) those which designate new-born concepts, may be named terminological coinages or terminological neologisms; 2) words coined because their creators seek expressive utterance may be named stylistic coinages or stylistic neologism.
Neologisms are mainly coined according to the productive models for word-building in the given languages. Most of the literary coinages are built by means of affixation and word compounding.
48.special colloquial vocabulary
a) Slang
No one has yet given a more or less satisfactory definition of the term slang. Slang seems to mean everything that is below the standard of usage of present-day English. Slang is represented both as a special vocabulary and as a special language. Slang is much rather a spoken than a literary language. It originates, nearly always, in speech.
The following stylistic layers of words are generally marled as slang:
1. Words which may be classed as thieves' cant, or the jargons of other social
groups and professions, like dirt (- 'money'), dotty (- 'mad'), a barker (= 'a
gun').
2. Colloquial words and phrases like for good, to have a hunch, a show (at the
theatre) and the like.
3. Figurative words and phrases are not infrequently regarded as slang and
included in special slang dictionaries, e.g. Scrooge (- 'a mean person'),
blackcoat (= 'a clergyman').
4. Words derived by means of conversion, one of the most productive means of
word-building in present day English, are also sometimes classed as slang,
for example, the noun agent is considered neutral because it has no stylistic
notation, whereas the verb to agent is included in one of the American
dictionaries of slang.
5. Abbreviations of the /яб-type, for example, rep (reputation), cig (cigarette)
ad (advertisement), as well as of they7w-type (influenza).
6. Set expressions which are generally used in colloquial speech and which are
clearly colloquial, are also marked with the notation slang, e.g., to go in for,
in a way, and many others.
7. Improprieties of a morphological and syntactical character, e.g., How come,
I says, double negatives as / don't know nothing and others of this kind.
8. Any new coinage that has not gained recognition and therefore has not yet
been received into standard English is easily branded as slang, leggo (let
go')-
Slang is nothing but a deviation from the established norm at the level of the vocabulary of the language.
b) Jargonisms
In the non-literary vocabulary of the English language there is a group of words that are called jargonisms. Jargon is a recognized term for a group of words that exists in almost every language and whose aim is to preserve secrecy within one or another social group. Jargonisms are generally old words with entirely new meanings imposed on them. Most of the jargonisms of any language, and of the English language too, are absolutely incomprehensible to those outside the social group which has invented them.
Jargonisms are social in character. They are not regional. In England and in the USA almost any social group of people has its own jargon.
Slang, contrary to jargon, needs no translation. It is not a secret code. It is easily understood by the English-speaking community and is only regarded as something not quite regular. It must also be remembered that both jargon and slang differ from ordinary language mainly in their vocabularies. The structure of the sentences and the morphology of the language remain practically unchanged.
There are hundreds of words, once jargonisms or slang, which have become legitimate members of the English literary language.
There is a common jargon and special professional jargons. Common jargonisms have gradually lost their special quality, which is to promote secrecy and keep outsiders in the dark. It belongs to all social groups and is therefore easily understood by everybody.
c) Professionalisms
Professionalisms, as the term itself signifies, are the words used in a definite trade, profession or calling by people connected by common interests both at work and at home. Professionalisms are correlated to terms. Professionalisms are special words in the non-literary layer of the English vocabulary, whereas terms are a specialized group belonging to the literary layer of words. Like slang words, professionalisms do not aim at secrecy.
Professionalisms are used in emotive prose to depict the natural speech of a character. The skilful use of a professional word will show not only the vocation of a character, but also his education, breeding, environment and sometimes even his psychology.
49. varieties of English
Language and Dialect
Every language is a composite of dialects. Banjarese language comprises, at least, two dialects: Banjar Hulu and Banjar Kuala dialects. Although we may not say that one dialect is better than that of another, there is an assumption that one of the dialects is regarded as a prestigious one. It seems that Banjar Kuala dialect is viewed as the prestigious dialect. This assumption is based on the fact that a speaker of Banjar Hulu dialect feels ashamed when using his dialect in the environment of Banjar Kuala speech community. Moreover, the speakers of Banjar Kuala dialect often laugh at those who speak in Banjar Hulua dialect. Furthermore, Javanese language is often divided into some dialects: Surabaya, Solo-Yogya, Banyumas dialects. Solo-Yogya dialect is viewed as the prestigious pne.
The term style refers to a language variety that is divided based on speech or speaking situation into formal and informal styles. We can speak very formally or very informally; our choice of the styles is governed by circumstances. Ceremonial occasions almost require very formal speech; public lectures are somewhat less formal; casual conversation is quite informal; and conversation between intimates on matters of little importance may be extremely informal and casual. We may try to relate the level of formality chosen to a number of factors: (1) the kind of occasion, (2) the various social, age, and other differences that exist between the participants, (3) the particular task that is involved, e.g., writing or speaking, and (4) the emotional involvement of one or more of the participants (
Speech levels
Speech levels (of Javanese language) which are divided into: honorific speech levels (krama madya and krama inggil)and non-respective speech levels (ngoko). In this relation, Soepomo Poedjosoedarmo explains that speech levels (of Javanese language) are also referred to as codes. The speech levels have special characteristics according to the speakers’ social background, the relationship to their listeners, and the speech situation (1975:30). In this relation, Clifford Geertz discusses in the frame of linguistic etiquette. As stated before, in Javanese language we recognize the complicated speech levels.
In a monolingual speech community, varieties of a given language may be dialects, speech levels, styles, or other varieties of the language. A monolingual speaker having only one language may use his language with some varieties of the language: dialects, styles, or speech levels.
In multilingual speech community, some languages together with their variations become parts of language varieties in the community. Therefore, we can say that varieties of language may refer to a single language and its varieties such as dialect, register, style, speech levels, etc.
50.special literary vocabulary: a) Terms are generally associated with a definite branch of science. They always come in clusters. Terms are characterized by a tendency to be monosemantic. A term has a stylistic function when it is used to create an atmosphere or to characterize a person. b) Poetic and highly literary words. Poetic words belong to a definite style of language and perform in it their direct function. Poetic language has special means of communication, i.e. rhythmical arrangement, some syntactical peculiarities and certain number of special words. Poetic words claim to be, as it were, of higher rank.
c) Archaic words The word stock of a language is in an increasing state of change. In every period in the development of a literary language one can find words which will show more or less apparent changes in their meaning or usage. 3 stages in the aging process of words: 1) the beginning of the aging process when the word becomes rarely used. Such words are called obsolescent; 2) archaic words -(obsolete) are those that have already gone completely out of use but are still recognized by the English speaking community. 3) Archaic proper - words which are no longer recognized in modern English. There is another class of words which is erroneously classed as archaic, historic words. Words of this type never disappear from the language.